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Colonial Era Chapter 1: La Conquista 1492 ― 1603 Conquistadors of the Caribbean 1492-1516 The Tierra Firme 1516-1558 Elizabethan Age 1558-1603 No Earlier Chapter Previous Chapter Nova Britannia 1603 ― 1675 Next Chapter Colonial Era Sponsors In Grateful Recognition "Patrons of the Past" (Sponsoring all nine Eras) Doug Shubert Adam Shubert Cathy Gillespie Sponsors of the Colonial Era: Bernie Frischer Sponsor an Era Documents Filter by Type Filter by Author Reset Filter by Era Master Index Read Document 04/17/1492 The formal agreement between Christopher Columbus and the Catholic Monarchs, outlining the terms of his voyage, including titles, governance, and a share of profits from any lands discovered. It provides a primary record of how Spain officially authorized and incentivized overseas exploration, establishing Columbus’s authority and the framework for his expeditions. Ferdinand of Aragon Capitulations of Santa Fe Read Document 04/30/1492 Issued by Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, the charter grants Christopher Columbus hereditary titles of Admiral of the Ocean Sea, Viceroy, and Governor over discovered lands, along with a share of profits. It establishes a legal and economic framework for exploration, showing how the Spanish Crown incentivized expansion through private enterprise while maintaining authority over commerce, territory, and governance. Ferdinand of Aragon Privileges Granted to Columbus Read Document 08/03/1492 Columbus sailed west under the Spanish Crown seeking a route to Asia, making landfall in the Bahamas on 12 October 1492 and initiating sustained contact between Europe and the Americas. He explored Cuba and Hispaniola and founded the short-lived La Navidad. His 1492–1493 journal, the earliest detailed European account of the Caribbean, survives only through the abstracted transcription of Bartolomé de las Casas. Christopher Columbus Columbus' Diary of His First Voyage Read Document 02/15/1493 Columbus’s letter announcing the results of his first voyage was published across Europe, describing the islands he encountered, their peoples, and the vast potential for wealth and Christian expansion. Framing the discovery as a triumph for Spain, the letter promised new lands rich in resources and ripe for conversion, bolstering Spanish prestige and competition with rival European powers. Christopher Columbus Columbus' Letter of His First Voyage Read Document 05/04/1493 Issued in 1493, Pope Alexander VI grants Spain rights to lands “discovered” west of a line of longitude while recognizing prior Portuguese claims to lands east of it. Written in Latin, this bull established the principle that non-Christian lands could be claimed by European powers, forming the basis for future colonization of the Americas. Pope Alexander VI Inter caetera Read Document 06/07/1494 An agreement between Spain and Portugal, mediated by the Pope, that divided newly discovered lands outside Europe along a meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands. This treaty granted Spain rights to most of the Americas while Portugal secured control over Africa, Asia, and later Brazil, shaping the course of global empire. Pope Alexander VI Treaty of Tordesillas Read Document 03/05/1496 Venetian explorer John Cabot, sailing under commission from England’s Henry VII, made landfall on the coast of North America, likely Newfoundland, on June 24, becoming the first known European since the Norse to reach the mainland. His voyage laid the foundation for England’s territorial claims in the New World, shaping the future of English colonization. Henry VII John Cabot's First Patent Read Document 05/10/1497 Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine navigator working for Spain, claimed to have sailed on a 1497–1498 voyage along the coast of the New World, possibly reaching Central America, though the authenticity of this voyage remains disputed by historians. Amerigo Vespucci Amerigo Vespucci First Voyage Read Document 07/22/1497 The Spanish Crown issued royal instructions authorizing Christopher Columbus to promote permanent settlement on Hispaniola by distributing land and requiring colonists to cultivate crops and develop the island’s resources. This decree marked an early shift from exploration toward organized colonization and agricultural exploitation in Spain’s emerging American empire. Ferdinand of Aragon Decree to Cultivate American Colonies Read Document 03/05/1498 Second letters patent issued by Henry VII granting John Cabot authority to outfit up to six ships and return to newly discovered lands (February 3, 1498), expanding royal support for exploration while relying on private financing, after which Cabot departed later that year on a voyage whose date, route, and fate remain unknown, with his pension ending in 1499 suggesting he likely died during or shortly after the expedition. Henry VII John Cabot's Second Patent Read Document 1503 Mundus Novus is a letter, attributed to Amerigo Vespucci, describing his voyages to the newly encountered lands across the Atlantic. Written in Latin and first printed in 1503, it introduced European readers to the idea that these lands were not Asia, but a “New World” previously unknown to Europeans. The letter emphasizes the vast size, natural wealth, and distinct peoples of these territories, fueling curiosity and prompting further exploration. Amerigo Vespucci Mundus Novus Read Document 12/27/1512 Promulgated by King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Juana of Castile in Burgos, Spain; the first comprehensive legal code regulating Spanish conduct, labor obligations, living conditions, and religious instruction of Indigenous peoples in the Americas, initially on Hispaniola and later applied to Puerto Rico and Jamaica, establishing the Crown’s framework for colonial governance and the treatment of native populations. Ferdinand of Aragon The Laws of Burgos 1 2 3 ... 135 1 ... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 ... 135 Biographies Christopher Columbus Christopher Columbus (1451–1506) was a Genoese navigator who sailed under the Spanish Crown and completed four transatlantic voyages beginning in 1492. He is best known for making sustained European contact with the Americas while searching for a western sea route to Asia. His expeditions initiated the Columbian Exchange and Spanish colonization of the Caribbean, though his governance and treatment of Indigenous peoples remain deeply controversial. View Bio John Rolfe John Rolfe (c. 1585–1622) was an English colonist who became one of the most important figures in the early development of Virginia. He helped establish Virginia’s tobacco industry and married Pocahontas in 1614, contributing to a period of improved relations between the English and the Powhatan Confederacy. His legacy is closely tied to the economic growth of Jamestown, the colonization of Virginia, and the complex history of English-Indigenous relations in early America. View Bio John Winthrop John Winthrop (1588–1649) was an English Puritan leader who helped establish the Massachusetts Bay Colony and served as its governor for much of its early history. In 1630, he led a large group of Puritan settlers to New England as part of the Great Migration, seeking to establish a religious community based on Puritan principles. As governor, Winthrop shaped the colony's government and society, leaving a lasting legacy as one of the most influential leaders in early New England. View Bio Benjamin Franklin Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) rose from humble beginnings as a runaway printer’s apprentice to become a leading writer, scientist, diplomat, and statesman whose influence shaped every stage of America’s founding. Through intellect, wit, and practical wisdom, he helped secure independence, unite the colonies, and design a constitutional republic that could endure. View Bio Roger Sherman Roger Sherman (1721–1793) was a Connecticut statesman and lawyer who played a central role in America’s founding and is the only person to sign all four key founding documents: the Continental Association, the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, and the U.S. Constitution. A delegate to both Continental Congresses and the Constitutional Convention, he later served in the first U.S. House of Representatives and Senate, shaping the early structure of the federal government. View Bio Samuel Adams Samuel Adams (1722–1803) was an American revolutionary, Founding Father, and political leader who became one of the most influential organizers of resistance to British rule. He helped mobilize opposition to British taxation, supported American independence, signed the Declaration of Independence, and later served as governor of Massachusetts. He opposed the ratification of the U.S. Constitution. View Bio Reset Filter by Era Tags Filter by Office Tags 1 2 3 ... 9 1 ... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ... 9

< Back Cydnee Melville Proctor Cydnee Melville is an American History Researcher at Amending America. Cydnee resides in Denver, Colorado with two children, Zeus the Goldendoodle and two cats named Sophie and Jules Vern. She has a bachelor’s degree in European history and master's degree in public history. Before she became a historian, she was a culinary chef for over 21 years. Her interests include Military War, European History, Norse Mythology, Greek Mythology, Culinary History, and Cryptozoology. She also recently completed an online exhibit and thesis called, “An Examination of Haiti After the Haitian Revolution: Destruction of a Nation.” Her hobbies include snowboarding, world traveling, reading, beer making, cooking, and watching documentaries.

Samuel Adams Samuel Adams (1722–1803) was an American revolutionary, political writer, statesman, and Founding Father who became one of the most influential leaders of the Patriot movement in Boston. A second cousin of future President John Adams, Samuel Adams was a major opponent of British taxation and imperial authority and helped transform colonial resistance into an organized movement for independence. He served in the Massachusetts legislature, participated in the Continental Congress, signed the Declaration of Independence, helped shape the Massachusetts Constitution, and ultimately served as governor of Massachusetts. Adams was born in Boston on September 27, 1722, into a prosperous and politically active Puritan family. His father, Samuel Adams Sr., was a successful maltster and an influential participant in Boston politics, exposing his son from an early age to ideas about self-government and civic responsibility. Adams attended Boston Latin School before entering Harvard College in 1736, graduating in 1740 and receiving a master's degree in 1743. His master's thesis asked whether it was lawful to resist a supreme magistrate when the commonwealth could not otherwise be preserved, foreshadowing the political principles that would define his life. After Harvard, Adams struggled to establish himself financially, trying several occupations before finding his true calling in politics. He attempted business, worked in his father's malt house, and served as Boston's tax collector beginning in 1756, although he was not particularly successful as a businessman or administrator. Adams increasingly devoted himself to political writing and local government, becoming a clerk of the Boston Market and contributing to newspapers that defended colonial rights. In 1765, he entered the Massachusetts House of Representatives, where he became a leading opponent of the Stamp Act and later British taxation, using petitions, newspaper essays, town meetings, and committees of correspondence to mobilize public resistance. Adams became one of the most important organizers of the American Revolution in Boston. He opposed the Townshend Acts, helped organize resistance to British policies, and played a prominent role in the political events surrounding the Boston Massacre and the Boston Tea Party. He was a delegate to the Continental Congress beginning in 1774 and strongly supported independence as relations with Britain deteriorated into war. Adams signed the Declaration of Independence in 1776 and remained in Congress during the early years of the Revolution, later helping with the Articles of Confederation. He returned to Massachusetts in 1779 and, alongside John Adams and James Bowdoin, helped draft the Massachusetts Constitution, which was ratified in 1780. After the Revolution, Adams concentrated increasingly on Massachusetts politics. He served as president of the Massachusetts Senate and participated in the state's constitutional and political affairs before becoming lieutenant governor in 1789 under Governor John Hancock. When Hancock died in 1793, Adams assumed the governorship and was subsequently elected to three additional one-year terms, serving until 1797. As governor, he supported the principles of republican government and worked to maintain a balance between state and federal authority during the early years of the new American republic. After leaving office in 1797, he retired from public political life. Samuel Adams died in Boston on October 2, 1803, at the age of 81 and was buried at the Granary Burying Ground. His legacy rests less on holding high national office than on his ability to organize public opinion and turn political principles into sustained popular action. Adams helped establish the language and political networks through which Massachusetts resistance to British rule became part of a broader American independence movement, making him one of the central political organizers of the Revolution. Although later generations sometimes portrayed him primarily as a fiery propagandist, his contemporaries and later admirers also recognized him as a committed political thinker who placed liberty, self-government, and civic virtue at the center of his public life.

< Back Herzog Foundation Foundation Herzog Foundation exists to catalyze and accelerate the development of quality Christ-centered K-12 education. Our vision is for families and culture to flourish through quality Christian education. The legacy of Stan’s career centers around making national transit ecosystems accessible and sustainable. Likewise, the legacy of Stan’s philanthropy centers around making the ecosystems of Christian education more accessible and sustainable for families across the nation.

< Back Nour Chbany Chief Marketer Nour Chbany is the chief marketer; she is Majoring in finance and loves exploring new countries and new cultures. “I am proud to contribute to Tarpeia and cannot wait to see this community thrive and for us to grow and fulfill our purpose of helping teachers teach and students study American history.”

< Back Mindy Huspen Secretary Mindy is the Secretary at Tarpeia. She is a rising junior at The King's College studying Journalism, Culture and Society. Originally from Western Colorado, Mindy has been involved in grassroots politics and civic engagement from a very young age at the local and state level. She is also an avid debater, winning multiple titles in her speech and debate league in high school and currently serving as the Vice President of the King's Debate Society.

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William McKinley William McKinley was the 25th president of the United States, serving from 1897 until his assassination in 1901. Born on January 29, 1843, in Niles, Ohio, McKinley rose from modest beginnings to become one of the leading Republicans of the late nineteenth century. His presidency marked a major turning point in American history, overseeing the Spanish-American War, the acquisition of overseas territories, the emergence of the United States as a world power, and a return to economic prosperity after the severe depression of the 1890s. McKinley grew up in a large, hardworking family in Ohio and received his early education in local schools before attending Allegheny College in Pennsylvania. His education was interrupted by illness and financial difficulties, and he returned to Ohio, where he studied law and eventually began working as a teacher. When the Civil War began in 1861, McKinley enlisted in the Union Army as a private in the 23rd Ohio Volunteer Infantry. He served throughout the war and distinguished himself at the Battle of Antietam, where he repeatedly carried food and supplies to soldiers under heavy fire. By the end of the war, he had risen to the rank of brevet major, a distinction that remained an important part of his public identity. After the war, McKinley studied law, was admitted to the Ohio bar in 1867, and established a successful legal practice in Canton, Ohio. He entered politics as a Republican and was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1876. During his fourteen years in Congress, he became one of the nation's leading advocates of protective tariffs, believing that tariffs could protect American industries and workers from foreign competition. His support for the McKinley Tariff of 1890 made him nationally prominent, although the law's high rates contributed to Republican losses in the 1890 elections and ended his congressional career. He subsequently served as governor of Ohio from 1892 to 1896, where he gained a reputation as a moderate, disciplined, and increasingly popular Republican leader. His political partnership with wealthy industrialist Mark Hanna helped secure the Republican presidential nomination in 1896. McKinley's presidency began during a period of economic uncertainty and intense political debate, but he quickly established a program centered on economic recovery, protective tariffs, and the gold standard. The Dingley Tariff of 1897 raised tariff rates, while the Gold Standard Act of 1900 formally placed the nation's currency on a gold basis. The defining event of his presidency, however, was the Spanish-American War of 1898. Following Spain's brutal suppression of the Cuban independence movement and the destruction of the USS Maine in Havana Harbor, McKinley asked Congress for authority to intervene, and war was declared in April 1898. The United States rapidly defeated Spanish forces in Cuba and the Philippines and captured Puerto Rico and Guam. Under the Treaty of Paris, Spain surrendered control of Cuba and ceded Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines to the United States. McKinley subsequently supported the annexation of Hawaii and pursued an increasingly active American role abroad, transforming the United States into an emerging overseas power. After winning reelection in 1900, McKinley began his second term with the country enjoying relative prosperity and greater international influence. He traveled widely during the spring and summer of 1901, including a highly publicized visit to the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo, New York. On September 5, he delivered a speech at the exposition advocating expanded international commerce and friendly relations among nations. The following day, while greeting visitors at the exposition's Temple of Music, McKinley was shot twice by Leon Czolgosz, an anarchist who opposed government and political authority. McKinley initially appeared to recover, but his condition suddenly deteriorated as a result of infection and gangrene. He died on September 14, 1901, at the age of fifty-eight. Vice President Theodore Roosevelt succeeded him, and McKinley's death helped usher in a new era of American politics. His legacy remains closely associated with the rise of the United States as a global power, the Spanish-American War, the expansion of American territory, protective tariffs, and the transition from the nineteenth-century republic into the increasingly international and industrial America of the twentieth century.

< Back Constituting America Educational Nonprofit Constituting America is a non partisan educational 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) founded in 2010. Constituting America is committed to reversing the trend of civic apathy and ignorance permeating our society today. Our mission is to teach students and adults across America about the nonpartisan relevancy of the U.S. Constitution and the principles of self-governance inherent in our founding documents. We do this through multi-tiered programs such as: Free Constitution Presentations for Schools. Click here to learn more A Scholarship Contest for Students & Teachers. Click here to learn more National Promotion of our Winners' Works. Click here to see some of our Winners' short films, songs, PSA's & more! Yearly online studies of founding documents. Click here for our most recent First Principles of the American Founding 90 Day Study. Click here for Constituting America Founder, Actress Janine Turner's New Talk show on American Exceptionalism!

As Chief of Projects you are tasked with overseeing, starting, finishing, or publishing research projects such as those seen on the projects page. These research projects are designed to be an additional source of information for students, teachers, and researchers beyond that of the curriculum. < Back Chief of Projects Apply Now Job Type Volunteer About the Role As Chief of Projects you are tasked with overseeing, starting, finishing, or publishing research projects such as those seen on the projects page. These research projects are designed to be an additional source of information for students, teachers, and researchers beyond that of the curriculum. Requirements Prior relevant experience About the Company Amending America is an educational support services 501(c)(3) that specializes in American History, Civics, and Constitutional Law, and provides a variety of different resources for people to learn from including online courses, research projects, videos, and an extensive library of primary source documents. Apply Now

< Back Mekenna Miller Volunteer Mekenna Miller is an American History Researcher at Amending America. Aside from her volunteering, she is a former middle school social studies teacher. Now, she works with an AI company as a history expert. Mekenna has lived in Arizona just about her entire life and attended Arizona State University. She earned her B.S. in Political Science and then decided to pursue her lifelong passion and received an M.A. in History. She is most interested in the American Revolution and the Early Republic but also enjoys studying ancient civilizations. Mekenna believes history should be fun and accessible for everyone. When she is not researching history, she enjoys expressing herself through art and loves being in the great outdoors.

Zachary Taylor Zachary Taylor was the 12th President of the United States, serving from March 4, 1849, until his death on July 9, 1850. A career Army officer who spent more than four decades in military service, Taylor became a national hero during the Mexican-American War, earning the nickname “Old Rough and Ready” for his informal manner and battlefield leadership. Although he had little political experience before becoming president, his popularity as a military commander helped propel him to the presidency as the candidate of the Whig Party. Taylor's presidency was brief and dominated by the growing crisis over slavery and the admission of new states and territories, making his administration an important transition point on the road to the Civil War. Taylor was born on November 24, 1784, at Montebello, a plantation near Gordonsville, Virginia, to Richard Taylor and Sarah Dabney Strother Taylor. His family was part of the Virginia planter class, and shortly after his birth they moved west to Kentucky, where his father established a large plantation near Louisville. Taylor received a limited formal education and grew up on the Kentucky frontier, developing the practical skills and toughness that would later characterize his military career. His childhood was shaped by plantation life and the rapidly expanding American frontier, and although he never attended college, he learned through private tutoring and practical experience. In 1810, Taylor married Margaret Mackall Smith, with whom he had five children, including Sarah Knox Taylor, who briefly married Jefferson Davis before her death from illness. Taylor entered the United States Army in 1808 as a first lieutenant and began a military career that would last more than forty years. He served in the War of 1812, where he distinguished himself defending Fort Harrison against a Native American attack, and he later participated in campaigns against Native American nations in the Old Northwest and Florida. During the Second Seminole War, Taylor commanded American forces and won a major victory at the Battle of Lake Okeechobee in 1837. He eventually rose to the rank of brigadier general and became one of the Army's most experienced commanders. Taylor's greatest fame came during the Mexican-American War, when he led American forces to victories at Palo Alto, Resaca de la Palma, and Monterrey in 1846 and defeated a much larger Mexican army under General Antonio López de Santa Anna at the Battle of Buena Vista in February 1847. His victories made him a national hero and transformed him from a relatively obscure Army officer into a leading political figure. Taylor entered the 1848 presidential election as the Whig candidate, defeating Democratic candidate Lewis Cass and Free Soil candidate Martin Van Buren. Taylor had never held elected political office and had relatively few clearly defined political positions, but his military reputation and status as a national hero gave him enormous popular appeal. As president, he faced the increasingly explosive question of whether slavery would be permitted in the territories acquired from Mexico. Taylor opposed the expansion of slavery into the new territories and proposed admitting California and New Mexico as states without first organizing them as territories, hoping to bypass congressional battles over territorial slavery. He also warned that he would personally use military force against any attempt by Texas to claim parts of New Mexico. At the same time, disputes over California, New Mexico, Texas, and slavery intensified, leading Senator Henry Clay to propose the Compromise of 1850. Taylor opposed several elements of Clay's compromise and favored a more direct approach to admitting California and New Mexico. His administration therefore became an important part of the political struggle that preceded the eventual compromise. Taylor's presidency ended after only sixteen months when he suddenly became ill in July 1850. After attending Fourth of July celebrations in Washington, D.C., he developed severe gastrointestinal symptoms and died on July 9 at the White House at the age of sixty-five. His death elevated Vice President Millard Fillmore to the presidency, and Fillmore subsequently supported the Compromise of 1850, which Taylor had resisted. Taylor was buried at the Zachary Taylor National Cemetery in Louisville, Kentucky. Although his presidency was too short for him to establish a broad domestic program, Taylor is remembered as a military hero who unexpectedly entered national politics at one of the most dangerous moments in American history. His willingness to oppose the expansion of slavery and his defense of the federal government's authority over the territories have made his brief administration significant in understanding the political crisis that eventually led to the Civil War.