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< Back AEI's CERN Nonprofit Think Tank There is little in the realm of public policy that can advance opportunity, family, and the American creed as powerfully as does education. Yet, it can seem today that too many are intent on using education to promote bureaucracy, division, and a war on rigor. The Conservative Education Reform Network seeks to rectify this problem by cultivating a national community of conservative leaders in education, spanning a broad array of issue areas, positions, regions, and viewpoints. Through the network, we hope to foster meaningful efforts to promote solutions for students and families in the areas of early childhood, K–12, and higher education. The network boasts more than 850 members, hailing from all 50 states and Washington, D.C., working in a variety of roles, and offering a far-flung range of expertise.

World Wars Era Chapter 17: World War I 1913 ― 1921 New Freedom 1913-1917 Over There! 1917-1921 New Nationalism 1897 ― 1913 Previous Chapter Roaring Twenties 1921 ― 1929 Next Chapter World Wars Era Sponsors In Grateful Recognition "Patrons of the Past" (Sponsoring all nine Eras) Doug Shubert Adam Shubert Cathy Gillespie Sponsor an Era Documents Filter by Type Filter by Author Reset Filter by Era Master Index Read Document 04/17/1492 The formal agreement between Christopher Columbus and the Catholic Monarchs, outlining the terms of his voyage, including titles, governance, and a share of profits from any lands discovered. It provides a primary record of how Spain officially authorized and incentivized overseas exploration, establishing Columbus’s authority and the framework for his expeditions. Ferdinand of Aragon Capitulations of Santa Fe Read Document 04/30/1492 Issued by Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, the charter grants Christopher Columbus hereditary titles of Admiral of the Ocean Sea, Viceroy, and Governor over discovered lands, along with a share of profits. It establishes a legal and economic framework for exploration, showing how the Spanish Crown incentivized expansion through private enterprise while maintaining authority over commerce, territory, and governance. Ferdinand of Aragon Privileges Granted to Columbus Read Document 08/03/1492 Columbus sailed west under the Spanish Crown seeking a route to Asia, making landfall in the Bahamas on 12 October 1492 and initiating sustained contact between Europe and the Americas. He explored Cuba and Hispaniola and founded the short-lived La Navidad. His 1492–1493 journal, the earliest detailed European account of the Caribbean, survives only through the abstracted transcription of Bartolomé de las Casas. Christopher Columbus Columbus' Diary of His First Voyage Read Document 02/15/1493 Columbus’s letter announcing the results of his first voyage was published across Europe, describing the islands he encountered, their peoples, and the vast potential for wealth and Christian expansion. Framing the discovery as a triumph for Spain, the letter promised new lands rich in resources and ripe for conversion, bolstering Spanish prestige and competition with rival European powers. Christopher Columbus Columbus' Letter of His First Voyage Read Document 05/04/1493 Issued in 1493, Pope Alexander VI grants Spain rights to lands “discovered” west of a line of longitude while recognizing prior Portuguese claims to lands east of it. Written in Latin, this bull established the principle that non-Christian lands could be claimed by European powers, forming the basis for future colonization of the Americas. Pope Alexander VI Inter caetera Read Document 06/07/1494 An agreement between Spain and Portugal, mediated by the Pope, that divided newly discovered lands outside Europe along a meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands. This treaty granted Spain rights to most of the Americas while Portugal secured control over Africa, Asia, and later Brazil, shaping the course of global empire. Pope Alexander VI Treaty of Tordesillas Read Document 03/05/1496 Venetian explorer John Cabot, sailing under commission from England’s Henry VII, made landfall on the coast of North America, likely Newfoundland, on June 24, becoming the first known European since the Norse to reach the mainland. His voyage laid the foundation for England’s territorial claims in the New World, shaping the future of English colonization. Henry VII John Cabot's First Patent Read Document 05/10/1497 Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine navigator working for Spain, claimed to have sailed on a 1497–1498 voyage along the coast of the New World, possibly reaching Central America, though the authenticity of this voyage remains disputed by historians. Amerigo Vespucci Amerigo Vespucci First Voyage Read Document 07/22/1497 The Spanish Crown issued royal instructions authorizing Christopher Columbus to promote permanent settlement on Hispaniola by distributing land and requiring colonists to cultivate crops and develop the island’s resources. This decree marked an early shift from exploration toward organized colonization and agricultural exploitation in Spain’s emerging American empire. Ferdinand of Aragon Decree to Cultivate American Colonies Read Document 03/05/1498 Second letters patent issued by Henry VII granting John Cabot authority to outfit up to six ships and return to newly discovered lands (February 3, 1498), expanding royal support for exploration while relying on private financing, after which Cabot departed later that year on a voyage whose date, route, and fate remain unknown, with his pension ending in 1499 suggesting he likely died during or shortly after the expedition. Henry VII John Cabot's Second Patent Read Document 1503 Mundus Novus is a letter, attributed to Amerigo Vespucci, describing his voyages to the newly encountered lands across the Atlantic. Written in Latin and first printed in 1503, it introduced European readers to the idea that these lands were not Asia, but a “New World” previously unknown to Europeans. The letter emphasizes the vast size, natural wealth, and distinct peoples of these territories, fueling curiosity and prompting further exploration. Amerigo Vespucci Mundus Novus Read Document 12/27/1512 Promulgated by King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Juana of Castile in Burgos, Spain; the first comprehensive legal code regulating Spanish conduct, labor obligations, living conditions, and religious instruction of Indigenous peoples in the Americas, initially on Hispaniola and later applied to Puerto Rico and Jamaica, establishing the Crown’s framework for colonial governance and the treatment of native populations. Ferdinand of Aragon The Laws of Burgos 1 2 3 ... 135 1 ... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 ... 135 Biographies Christopher Columbus Christopher Columbus (1451–1506) was a Genoese navigator who sailed under the Spanish Crown and completed four transatlantic voyages beginning in 1492. He is best known for making sustained European contact with the Americas while searching for a western sea route to Asia. His expeditions initiated the Columbian Exchange and Spanish colonization of the Caribbean, though his governance and treatment of Indigenous peoples remain deeply controversial. View Bio John Rolfe John Rolfe (c. 1585–1622) was an English colonist who became one of the most important figures in the early development of Virginia. He helped establish Virginia’s tobacco industry and married Pocahontas in 1614, contributing to a period of improved relations between the English and the Powhatan Confederacy. His legacy is closely tied to the economic growth of Jamestown, the colonization of Virginia, and the complex history of English-Indigenous relations in early America. View Bio John Winthrop John Winthrop (1588–1649) was an English Puritan leader who helped establish the Massachusetts Bay Colony and served as its governor for much of its early history. In 1630, he led a large group of Puritan settlers to New England as part of the Great Migration, seeking to establish a religious community based on Puritan principles. As governor, Winthrop shaped the colony's government and society, leaving a lasting legacy as one of the most influential leaders in early New England. View Bio Benjamin Franklin Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) rose from humble beginnings as a runaway printer’s apprentice to become a leading writer, scientist, diplomat, and statesman whose influence shaped every stage of America’s founding. Through intellect, wit, and practical wisdom, he helped secure independence, unite the colonies, and design a constitutional republic that could endure. View Bio Roger Sherman Roger Sherman (1721–1793) was a Connecticut statesman and lawyer who played a central role in America’s founding and is the only person to sign all four key founding documents: the Continental Association, the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, and the U.S. Constitution. A delegate to both Continental Congresses and the Constitutional Convention, he later served in the first U.S. House of Representatives and Senate, shaping the early structure of the federal government. View Bio Samuel Adams Samuel Adams (1722–1803) was an American revolutionary, Founding Father, and political leader who became one of the most influential organizers of resistance to British rule. He helped mobilize opposition to British taxation, supported American independence, signed the Declaration of Independence, and later served as governor of Massachusetts. He opposed the ratification of the U.S. Constitution. View Bio Reset Filter by Era Tags Filter by Office Tags 1 2 3 ... 9 1 ... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ... 9

Cold War Era Chapter 21: Containment 1945 ― 1961 The Buck Stops Here 1945-1953 New Look 1953-1961 World War II 1941 ― 1945 Previous Chapter Detente 1961 ― 1977 Next Chapter Cold War Era Sponsors In Grateful Recognition "Patrons of the Past" (Sponsoring all nine Eras) Doug Shubert Adam Shubert Cathy Gillespie Sponsor an Era Documents Filter by Type Filter by Author Reset Filter by Era Master Index Read Document 04/17/1492 The formal agreement between Christopher Columbus and the Catholic Monarchs, outlining the terms of his voyage, including titles, governance, and a share of profits from any lands discovered. It provides a primary record of how Spain officially authorized and incentivized overseas exploration, establishing Columbus’s authority and the framework for his expeditions. Ferdinand of Aragon Capitulations of Santa Fe Read Document 04/30/1492 Issued by Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, the charter grants Christopher Columbus hereditary titles of Admiral of the Ocean Sea, Viceroy, and Governor over discovered lands, along with a share of profits. It establishes a legal and economic framework for exploration, showing how the Spanish Crown incentivized expansion through private enterprise while maintaining authority over commerce, territory, and governance. Ferdinand of Aragon Privileges Granted to Columbus Read Document 08/03/1492 Columbus sailed west under the Spanish Crown seeking a route to Asia, making landfall in the Bahamas on 12 October 1492 and initiating sustained contact between Europe and the Americas. He explored Cuba and Hispaniola and founded the short-lived La Navidad. His 1492–1493 journal, the earliest detailed European account of the Caribbean, survives only through the abstracted transcription of Bartolomé de las Casas. Christopher Columbus Columbus' Diary of His First Voyage Read Document 02/15/1493 Columbus’s letter announcing the results of his first voyage was published across Europe, describing the islands he encountered, their peoples, and the vast potential for wealth and Christian expansion. Framing the discovery as a triumph for Spain, the letter promised new lands rich in resources and ripe for conversion, bolstering Spanish prestige and competition with rival European powers. Christopher Columbus Columbus' Letter of His First Voyage Read Document 05/04/1493 Issued in 1493, Pope Alexander VI grants Spain rights to lands “discovered” west of a line of longitude while recognizing prior Portuguese claims to lands east of it. Written in Latin, this bull established the principle that non-Christian lands could be claimed by European powers, forming the basis for future colonization of the Americas. Pope Alexander VI Inter caetera Read Document 06/07/1494 An agreement between Spain and Portugal, mediated by the Pope, that divided newly discovered lands outside Europe along a meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands. This treaty granted Spain rights to most of the Americas while Portugal secured control over Africa, Asia, and later Brazil, shaping the course of global empire. Pope Alexander VI Treaty of Tordesillas Read Document 03/05/1496 Venetian explorer John Cabot, sailing under commission from England’s Henry VII, made landfall on the coast of North America, likely Newfoundland, on June 24, becoming the first known European since the Norse to reach the mainland. His voyage laid the foundation for England’s territorial claims in the New World, shaping the future of English colonization. Henry VII John Cabot's First Patent Read Document 05/10/1497 Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine navigator working for Spain, claimed to have sailed on a 1497–1498 voyage along the coast of the New World, possibly reaching Central America, though the authenticity of this voyage remains disputed by historians. Amerigo Vespucci Amerigo Vespucci First Voyage Read Document 07/22/1497 The Spanish Crown issued royal instructions authorizing Christopher Columbus to promote permanent settlement on Hispaniola by distributing land and requiring colonists to cultivate crops and develop the island’s resources. This decree marked an early shift from exploration toward organized colonization and agricultural exploitation in Spain’s emerging American empire. Ferdinand of Aragon Decree to Cultivate American Colonies Read Document 03/05/1498 Second letters patent issued by Henry VII granting John Cabot authority to outfit up to six ships and return to newly discovered lands (February 3, 1498), expanding royal support for exploration while relying on private financing, after which Cabot departed later that year on a voyage whose date, route, and fate remain unknown, with his pension ending in 1499 suggesting he likely died during or shortly after the expedition. Henry VII John Cabot's Second Patent Read Document 1503 Mundus Novus is a letter, attributed to Amerigo Vespucci, describing his voyages to the newly encountered lands across the Atlantic. Written in Latin and first printed in 1503, it introduced European readers to the idea that these lands were not Asia, but a “New World” previously unknown to Europeans. The letter emphasizes the vast size, natural wealth, and distinct peoples of these territories, fueling curiosity and prompting further exploration. Amerigo Vespucci Mundus Novus Read Document 12/27/1512 Promulgated by King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Juana of Castile in Burgos, Spain; the first comprehensive legal code regulating Spanish conduct, labor obligations, living conditions, and religious instruction of Indigenous peoples in the Americas, initially on Hispaniola and later applied to Puerto Rico and Jamaica, establishing the Crown’s framework for colonial governance and the treatment of native populations. Ferdinand of Aragon The Laws of Burgos 1 2 3 ... 135 1 ... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 ... 135 Biographies Christopher Columbus Christopher Columbus (1451–1506) was a Genoese navigator who sailed under the Spanish Crown and completed four transatlantic voyages beginning in 1492. He is best known for making sustained European contact with the Americas while searching for a western sea route to Asia. His expeditions initiated the Columbian Exchange and Spanish colonization of the Caribbean, though his governance and treatment of Indigenous peoples remain deeply controversial. View Bio John Rolfe John Rolfe (c. 1585–1622) was an English colonist who became one of the most important figures in the early development of Virginia. He helped establish Virginia’s tobacco industry and married Pocahontas in 1614, contributing to a period of improved relations between the English and the Powhatan Confederacy. His legacy is closely tied to the economic growth of Jamestown, the colonization of Virginia, and the complex history of English-Indigenous relations in early America. View Bio John Winthrop John Winthrop (1588–1649) was an English Puritan leader who helped establish the Massachusetts Bay Colony and served as its governor for much of its early history. In 1630, he led a large group of Puritan settlers to New England as part of the Great Migration, seeking to establish a religious community based on Puritan principles. As governor, Winthrop shaped the colony's government and society, leaving a lasting legacy as one of the most influential leaders in early New England. View Bio Benjamin Franklin Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) rose from humble beginnings as a runaway printer’s apprentice to become a leading writer, scientist, diplomat, and statesman whose influence shaped every stage of America’s founding. Through intellect, wit, and practical wisdom, he helped secure independence, unite the colonies, and design a constitutional republic that could endure. View Bio Roger Sherman Roger Sherman (1721–1793) was a Connecticut statesman and lawyer who played a central role in America’s founding and is the only person to sign all four key founding documents: the Continental Association, the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, and the U.S. Constitution. A delegate to both Continental Congresses and the Constitutional Convention, he later served in the first U.S. House of Representatives and Senate, shaping the early structure of the federal government. View Bio Samuel Adams Samuel Adams (1722–1803) was an American revolutionary, Founding Father, and political leader who became one of the most influential organizers of resistance to British rule. He helped mobilize opposition to British taxation, supported American independence, signed the Declaration of Independence, and later served as governor of Massachusetts. He opposed the ratification of the U.S. Constitution. View Bio Reset Filter by Era Tags Filter by Office Tags 1 2 3 ... 9 1 ... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ... 9

As Chief Moderator you are tasked with setting up and running online debates, encouraging participation in debates, reviewing mock bills on the Forum page and essays on the Essays page to make sure content is following site guidelines. You will also manage interactive socials such as Discord. < Back Chief Moderator Apply Now Job Type Volunteer About the Role As Chief Moderator you are tasked with setting up and running online debates, encouraging participation in debates, reviewing mock bills on the Forum page and essays on the Essays page to make sure content is following site guidelines. You will also manage interactive socials such as Discord. Requirements Experience with moderating online platforms and debates. Letter of Recommendation from an Employer of a relevant job. About the Company Amending America is an educational support services 501(c)(3) that specializes in American History, Civics, and Constitutional Law, and provides a variety of different resources for people to learn from including online courses, research projects, videos, and an extensive library of primary source documents. Apply Now

John Quincy Adams John Quincy Adams was the sixth President of the United States, serving from March 4, 1825, to March 4, 1829. Born into one of America’s most prominent political families, he was the eldest son of John Adams, the second President, and Abigail Adams. Throughout his long career, Adams served as a diplomat, senator, secretary of state, president, and finally a member of the House of Representatives. His life spanned the American Revolution, the founding of the federal government, the War of 1812, the Era of Good Feelings, and the growing sectional conflict over slavery. Although his presidency was politically difficult and lasted only one term, his later congressional career established him as one of the most outspoken defenders of free speech and opponents of slavery in American history. Adams was born on July 11, 1767, in Braintree, Massachusetts, to John and Abigail Adams. His childhood was deeply shaped by the American Revolution, and as a boy he witnessed the Battle of Bunker Hill from nearby Penn’s Hill in 1775. His father’s political career also exposed him to international affairs at an unusually young age. At only ten years old, Adams accompanied his father to Europe and spent several years studying in France and the Netherlands. While still a teenager, he served as an interpreter and secretary to the American diplomatic mission in Russia. He returned to Massachusetts in 1785 and entered Harvard College, graduating in 1787. Adams subsequently studied law and was admitted to the Massachusetts bar in 1791, but his education and early experiences had already prepared him for a career in diplomacy and public service. Adams entered national public life as a diplomat while still in his twenties. In 1794, President George Washington appointed him minister to the Netherlands, beginning a diplomatic career that would take him to several European capitals. He later served as minister to Prussia and was elected to the United States Senate in 1803. Adams eventually broke with the Federalist Party because of his support for President Thomas Jefferson's Embargo, and he resigned from the Senate in 1808. President James Madison later appointed him minister to Russia, where he served during the Napoleonic Wars. Adams was one of the American commissioners who negotiated the Treaty of Ghent, which ended the War of 1812. In 1815, President Madison appointed him minister to Britain, and later that year Adams became Secretary of State under President James Monroe. As secretary of state, he was one of the principal architects of American foreign policy, helping formulate the Monroe Doctrine and negotiating the Adams-Onís Treaty of 1819, through which the United States acquired Florida from Spain. By the time he became president, Adams had accumulated decades of experience in diplomacy, law, and national government. Adams became president following the bitter election of 1824, one of the most controversial presidential elections in American history. Andrew Jackson won the most electoral votes but failed to receive a majority, so the election was decided by the House of Representatives. Speaker Henry Clay supported Adams, and the House elected him president on February 9, 1825. Adams proposed an ambitious program of national development that included federal support for roads, canals, scientific research, education, and other internal improvements. He also supported a national observatory and greater investment in scientific and intellectual institutions. However, his administration faced fierce opposition from Jackson and his supporters, who accused Adams and Clay of making a corrupt bargain. Adams struggled to build a political coalition, and many of his proposals were defeated or weakened by Congress. His administration's difficulties contributed to Jackson's decisive victory in the election of 1828, and Adams left office on March 4, 1829. Rather than retire from public life after his presidency, Adams returned to national politics in an unexpected way. In 1830, he was elected to the House of Representatives, becoming the only former president to serve in Congress after leaving the White House until Andrew Johnson entered the Senate in the nineteenth century. Adams represented Massachusetts in the House for the rest of his life and became one of the nation's leading opponents of slavery. He fought against the congressional "gag rule," which prevented the House from considering petitions concerning slavery, arguing that it violated the constitutional right of petition. He also represented the enslaved Africans involved in the Amistad case before the Supreme Court, successfully arguing that they had been illegally enslaved and should be free. Adams increasingly viewed the expansion of slavery as a threat to the principles of the American Revolution and became an important early congressional voice against the institution. Adams's public career ended dramatically on February 21, 1848, when he suffered a cerebral hemorrhage and collapsed at his desk in the House chamber. He died two days later, on February 23, 1848, in the Capitol at the age of eighty. His final words are traditionally reported to have been spoken to his wife, Abigail, although the exact wording of his last statement is uncertain. Adams was buried in the United First Parish Church in Quincy, Massachusetts, alongside his parents. His presidency was overshadowed during his lifetime by the political triumph of Andrew Jackson, but his broader career has received much greater recognition. He was an exceptionally accomplished diplomat, an influential secretary of state, and a determined defender of constitutional liberties. His nearly eighteen years in Congress, particularly his battle against the congressional gag rule and his opposition to slavery, became one of the most important chapters of his public life and cemented his reputation as one of the most intellectually formidable statesmen of the early United States.

James A. Garfield James Abram Garfield was the 20th president of the United States, serving from March 4, 1881, until his death on September 19, 1881. Born into humble circumstances in Ohio, Garfield rose through education, teaching, law, military service, and politics to become one of the most prominent Republican leaders of the post–Civil War era. His presidency was extraordinarily brief, but his career reflected many of the central political conflicts of the Gilded Age, particularly disputes over civil-service reform, political patronage, and the influence of party factions. Garfield was also a gifted scholar and orator who believed strongly in education, individual advancement, and public service. His assassination, only months after taking office, transformed him from a relatively obscure president into a symbol of the dangers of the nation's patronage system. Garfield was born on November 19, 1831, in Orange Township, Ohio, the youngest of five children of Abram and Eliza Garfield. His father died when James was only 18 months old, leaving his mother to raise the family with limited means. As a boy, Garfield worked on his family's farm and developed a fascination with reading and learning. At age 16 he left home to attend the Geauga Seminary, where he studied while working to pay his expenses. He later attended the Western Reserve Eclectic Institute—now Hiram College—and became an instructor there. In 1854 he entered Williams College in Massachusetts as a junior and graduated in 1856. Garfield returned to Ohio and became principal of the Eclectic Institute, where he taught a broad range of subjects. His intellectual abilities, religious convictions, and talent for public speaking quickly established him as a rising figure in his community. Garfield entered politics as a Republican during the turbulent years preceding the Civil War. In 1859, Ohio voters elected him to the state senate, where he opposed the expansion of slavery and became increasingly involved in the Republican Party. When the Civil War began in 1861, Garfield volunteered for military service and eventually became a brigadier general. He distinguished himself at the Battle of Middle Creek in Kentucky in January 1862, helping Union forces secure an important victory. Later that year he was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives, beginning a congressional career that would last nearly 18 years. Garfield resigned his military commission in 1863 and took his seat in Congress, where he became an influential Republican. He served on important committees, supported Reconstruction and civil rights for African Americans, and developed a reputation as an able legislator and powerful speaker. By the late 1870s, he was one of the most respected Republican leaders in Washington. Garfield's path to the presidency emerged from a bitterly divided Republican Party. At the 1880 Republican National Convention, former president Ulysses S. Grant was supported by the Stalwarts, who favored traditional patronage politics, while Senator James G. Blaine represented another major faction. Garfield was nominated as a compromise candidate after a prolonged convention and was elected president in November 1880. His administration immediately became entangled in the patronage struggle. Garfield attempted to resist the demands of Senator Roscoe Conkling and the Stalwarts, particularly over appointments to federal offices. His decision to nominate reform-minded figures, including William H. Robertson as collector of the Port of New York, provoked a major confrontation with Conkling. Although Garfield's administration had little time to accomplish its broader program, he supported civil-service reform, education, improved agricultural research, and modernization of the federal government. On July 2, 1881, Charles J. Guiteau, a disgruntled office seeker who believed Garfield owed him a government position, shot the president at a Washington railroad station. After the shooting, Garfield spent the summer of 1881 attempting to recover while doctors struggled to locate and remove the bullet. He was moved from the White House to a seaside retreat in New Jersey in September, but his condition continued to deteriorate. Garfield remained mentally alert for much of his illness and continued to discuss government affairs with those around him. Although later medical understanding suggests that the medical treatment itself contributed substantially to his decline, physicians at the time repeatedly probed his wound in unsuccessful attempts to find the bullet. Garfield eventually developed severe infections and internal complications. His vice president, Chester A. Arthur, did not assume presidential powers during Garfield's illness, and Garfield technically remained president until his death. Garfield died at Elberon, New Jersey, on September 19, 1881, at the age of 49. Guiteau was convicted of murder and hanged in 1882. Garfield's presidency was too short for him to establish a substantial record as chief executive, but his death had lasting consequences for American politics. His assassination dramatically increased public support for civil-service reform and helped create the political momentum that produced the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act of 1883, which began replacing the patronage system with a merit-based federal civil service. Garfield is also remembered for rising from poverty through education and becoming one of the nation's most accomplished scholars and politicians. His life demonstrated the possibilities of nineteenth-century American education and political advancement, while his death exposed the destructive consequences of the era's patronage politics. Although ranked among the lesser-known presidents because of the brevity of his administration, Garfield occupies an important place in American history as a reform-minded president whose unfinished career helped accelerate the transformation of the federal government.

Lyndon B. Johnson Lyndon Baines Johnson (1908–1973) was the 36th president of the United States, serving from 1963 to 1969. A masterful and often controversial politician, Johnson transformed American domestic policy through an ambitious program of legislation that he called the Great Society, while his presidency was increasingly defined by the Vietnam War. Rising from humble beginnings in the Texas Hill Country, Johnson built a career through education, congressional politics, and an extraordinary ability to cultivate political relationships. His presidency produced landmark achievements in civil rights, voting rights, health care, education, and poverty reduction, but the escalating war in Vietnam damaged his popularity and ultimately contributed to his decision not to seek reelection in 1968. Johnson was born on August 27, 1908, near Stonewall, Texas, to Samuel Ealy Johnson Jr., a farmer and state legislator, and Rebekah Baines Johnson. He grew up in a family that valued education and public service, although his family's financial circumstances were often difficult. Johnson attended Southwest Texas State Teachers College, now Texas State University, where he studied history and political science and became deeply interested in government. To help pay his way through school, he worked as a teacher, including at a Mexican American school in Cotulla, Texas. The experience exposed him to severe poverty and educational inequality and influenced his later belief that government could be used to expand opportunity. After graduating in 1930, Johnson briefly taught high school before entering politics. Johnson's political career began in 1931 when he became secretary to Congressman Richard Kleberg of Texas. He quickly learned the mechanics of political organization and developed a reputation for extraordinary ambition and energy. In 1937, he was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives, where he became a strong supporter of President Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal. Johnson won election to the Senate in 1948 after a notoriously close and controversial election and gradually became one of the most powerful legislators in Washington. He served as Senate Democratic whip and then Senate majority leader, becoming famous for his ability to persuade, pressure, and sometimes intimidate fellow senators into supporting legislation. In 1960, Democratic presidential nominee John F. Kennedy selected Johnson as his running mate, and Johnson became vice president after Kennedy's victory. The partnership was often strained, but Johnson's experience in Congress provided the Kennedy administration with an important connection to Capitol Hill. Johnson became president on November 22, 1963, following Kennedy's assassination, and was elected to a full term in 1964 in one of the largest electoral victories in American history. He used his political skill to push an extraordinary amount of legislation through Congress. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965 attacked legal segregation and racial discrimination, while Medicare and Medicaid created major new federal health-care programs. His Great Society programs also expanded federal aid to education, created initiatives against poverty, supported urban development, strengthened environmental protections, and established new immigration policies through the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965. At the same time, Johnson dramatically expanded American military involvement in Vietnam, eventually sending hundreds of thousands of U.S. troops to fight the communist-led North Vietnamese and Viet Cong. As casualties mounted and the war became increasingly unpopular, domestic divisions intensified, overshadowing many of his domestic accomplishments. After announcing in March 1968 that he would not seek another term, Johnson left the White House in January 1969 and returned to his ranch near Stonewall, Texas. He largely withdrew from active politics but remained interested in national affairs and worked on his memoirs. He also oversaw the creation of the Lyndon Baines Johnson Library and Museum in Austin, which opened in 1971 and preserved the records of his political career and presidency. Johnson spent his final years reflecting on his achievements and failures, particularly the Vietnam War, which he increasingly regarded as one of the great tragedies of his presidency. Although he remained a deeply polarizing figure, he continued to defend the Great Society and his efforts to expand civil rights and economic opportunity. Johnson died of a heart attack at his ranch on January 22, 1973, at the age of 64, only two days after the second inauguration of Richard Nixon. He was buried at the Johnson family cemetery near his birthplace in Stonewall, Texas. His legacy remains profoundly mixed: his presidency helped produce some of the most consequential civil rights and social-welfare legislation in American history, while his escalation of the Vietnam War caused immense human suffering and contributed to a crisis of confidence in the federal government. Historians continue to debate the balance between these achievements and failures, but Johnson's impact is unmistakable. Few presidents demonstrated more clearly how political power could be used to reshape American society—and how the exercise of that power could produce consequences that extended far beyond the president's ability to control them.

< Back The Heritage Foundation's Project 2025 Nonprofit Think Tank With the Biden administration half over and with the immediate dangers inherent to one-party rule in Washington behind us for now, it’s past time to lay the groundwork for a White House more friendly to the right. For decades, as the left has continued its march through America’s institutions, conservatives have been outgunned and outmatched when it comes to the art of government. One reason is because the Republican establishment never moved on from the 1980s. Beltway conservatives still prioritize supply-side economics and a bellicose foreign policy above all else. Belief in small government, strangely enough, has manifested itself in a belief among some conservatives that we should lead by example and not fill all political appointments. Belief in the primacy of the national security state has caused conservative administrations to defer political decisions to the generals and the intelligence community. The result has been decades of disappointment. Fortunately, this situation is changing. The conservative movement increasingly knows what time it is in America. More and more of our politicians are willing to use the government to achieve our vision, because the neutrality of “keeping the government out of it” will lose every time to the left’s vast power. The calls for a “new Church Committee” represent a momentous shift in energy; while conservatives used to lament liberal Sen. Frank Church’s original project as a kooky leftist attack against “The Brave Men And Women of Our Intelligence Community,” we’re now the ones agitating for Congress to go after the three-letter agencies. This new vigor of the right can be found at Project 2025. Organized by the Heritage Foundation, Project 2025 has brought together 45 (and counting) right-of-center organizations that are ready to get into the business of restoring this country through the combination of the right policies and well-trained people. The Project’s foundation is built on four interconnected pillars.

Alexander Hamilton Alexander Hamilton (c. January 11, 1755 or 1757–July 12, 1804) was a Caribbean-born American statesman, military officer, lawyer, and political thinker who became one of the most influential figures in the founding of the United States. Born on the island of Nevis and raised partly on St. Croix, Hamilton rose from an uncertain and impoverished childhood to become a leading advocate for American independence and a close aide to General George Washington. After the Revolution, he played a central role in creating the Constitution, establishing the new federal government, and developing the financial system of the United States. As the first Secretary of the Treasury, he championed a strong national government, public credit, federal taxation, and a national bank. His ideas helped shape the emerging American political system and contributed to the development of the Federalist Party. Hamilton was born in the British West Indies to James Hamilton, a Scottish merchant, and Rachel Faucette, who was of French Huguenot descent. His exact birth year remains uncertain because later records conflict, with 1755 and 1757 both appearing in historical sources. His father abandoned the family when Hamilton was young, and his mother died in 1768, leaving Hamilton largely responsible for his own future. Despite his difficult circumstances, he demonstrated remarkable intellectual ability and worked as a clerk at a trading company in St. Croix. After a hurricane struck Christiansted in 1772, Hamilton wrote a vivid account of the disaster that impressed local leaders, who raised money to send him to North America for an education. He eventually studied at King's College in New York, later known as Columbia University, where he quickly became involved in the political controversy surrounding the American colonies and Britain. As tensions with Britain escalated, Hamilton became an active supporter of the Patriot cause. He joined a New York militia unit and participated in the early fighting of the Revolutionary War, eventually becoming an artillery officer. His abilities attracted the attention of General George Washington, and in 1777 Hamilton became a member of Washington's military staff, serving as his aide-de-camp and trusted secretary. Although Hamilton wanted an independent battlefield command, he remained with Washington for several years and gained valuable experience in military administration and national affairs. In 1781, he finally received a field command and led American troops at the Battle of Yorktown, where his forces captured a key British position during the decisive American victory. The Revolution transformed Hamilton from an ambitious young immigrant into a prominent national figure and convinced him that the new nation required a stronger central government than existed under the Articles of Confederation. After the Revolution, Hamilton established himself as a lawyer in New York and became increasingly involved in national politics. He was a delegate to the Constitutional Convention of 1787 and strongly advocated a powerful federal government, although the Constitution ultimately did not reflect all of his preferred provisions. Alongside James Madison and John Jay, he helped write the Federalist Papers, which defended the proposed Constitution to the American public. After George Washington became president in 1789, he appointed Hamilton as the nation's first Secretary of the Treasury. Hamilton developed a comprehensive financial program that included federal assumption of state debts, funding the national debt at full value, federal taxation, and the creation of the First Bank of the United States. He also promoted manufacturing and a diversified national economy. His disagreements with Thomas Jefferson and James Madison over the proper scope of federal power, economic policy, and foreign affairs helped produce America's first organized political parties, with Hamilton emerging as the leading figure of the Federalists. Hamilton's political career ended tragically when he was killed in a duel with Aaron Burr on July 12, 1804, in Weehawken, New Jersey. Hamilton had opposed Burr's political ambitions and had made statements that Burr regarded as attacks on his character, leading Burr to challenge him to a duel. Hamilton was mortally wounded and died the following day in New York City at the age of approximately forty-seven or forty-nine, depending on his disputed birth year. His death ended the life of one of the most energetic and controversial figures of the founding generation. Hamilton's legacy remains especially significant in the areas of constitutional government, federal finance, public credit, banking, military organization, and national economic development. Although his vision of government was controversial even during his lifetime, many of his ideas became important foundations of the American federal state, making Hamilton one of the most consequential architects of the early United States.

< Back Adam Levinson Advisor Adam Levinson is a full-time practicing lawyer who blogs about American legal history on the free history website Statutesandstories.com. Chief Justice Holmes referred to the law as a “magic mirror,” reflecting our present and past. Statutesandstories.com was originally built around Adam's collection of antiquarian legal texts, including the Stamp Act, the Tea Act, and the Acts of the First Congress. Today, the website casts a wide net to blog about laws and other “stories” that arise from and reflect American history. Adam graduated with a BA in history from the University of Michigan and earned a JD from the University of Miami, where he was an articles and comments editor for the University of Miami Law Review. He is licensed to practice law in Florida and California. In 2024 Adam was awarded a Scholarly Fellowship by the Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History. Heading into "America 250" he is leading an initiative to install a historic marker to honor Miss Dally's boarding house, the location where Gouverneur Morris boarded during the Constitutional Convention.

Herbert Hoover Herbert Clark Hoover was the 31st president of the United States, serving from 1929 to 1933 during one of the most difficult periods in American history. Born on August 10, 1874, in West Branch, Iowa, Hoover rose from a modest Quaker upbringing to become a highly successful mining engineer, businessman, humanitarian, and public servant. Before entering the White House, he gained an international reputation for organizing massive relief efforts during and after World War I. As president, Hoover initially governed during a period of prosperity, but the stock market crash of October 1929 and the ensuing Great Depression transformed his presidency. Although his administration undertook significant efforts to combat the economic crisis, Hoover became closely associated with the Depression and was defeated by Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1932. Hoover was born to Jesse Clark Hoover, a blacksmith and local Quaker leader, and Hulda Randall Minthorn Hoover. He was orphaned at a young age: his mother died in 1884, followed by his father in 1885. After his parents' deaths, Hoover was raised partly by relatives and eventually sent to live with his uncle in Oregon. His Quaker upbringing emphasized discipline, thrift, self-reliance, hard work, and service to others—values that strongly influenced his later political philosophy. Hoover attended Stanford University, entering with the school's first class in 1891, and studied geology. At Stanford he met Lou Henry, another geology student whom he later married. He graduated in 1895 with a degree in geology and soon began a career that would take him around the world. After graduating, Hoover worked as a mining engineer and traveled extensively, inspecting and developing mines in Australia, China, and other parts of the world. He eventually became an independent mining consultant and made a considerable fortune through his international business ventures. Hoover's engineering career gave him a reputation for organization, efficiency, and technical expertise. During World War I, however, his career shifted toward humanitarian service. When Germany invaded Belgium in 1914, Hoover organized the Commission for Relief in Belgium, which coordinated the delivery of food to millions of civilians. After the United States entered the war, President Woodrow Wilson appointed Hoover head of the U.S. Food Administration, where he promoted conservation and organized the nation's wartime food supply. After the war, Hoover served as Secretary of Commerce under Presidents Warren G. Harding and Calvin Coolidge, promoting economic development, infrastructure, aviation, radio, standardization, and expanded cooperation between government and business. His reputation as an efficient administrator helped make him a leading candidate for the presidency in 1928. Hoover was elected president in 1928, defeating Democrat Al Smith in a landslide. He entered office promising continued prosperity and famously spoke of eliminating poverty and ensuring that prosperity would reach ordinary Americans. His presidency, however, was soon overwhelmed by the stock market crash of October 1929 and the Great Depression. Hoover initially relied heavily on voluntary cooperation among businesses, local governments, and charities, believing that excessive federal intervention could undermine individual responsibility and the American economic system. As the Depression deepened, however, his administration adopted increasingly aggressive measures. The Reconstruction Finance Corporation was established in 1932 to provide emergency loans to banks, railroads, and other major institutions, while the federal government expanded public works spending and provided assistance to state and local governments. Hoover also signed the Smoot-Hawley Tariff in 1930, which raised tariffs substantially and became controversial as international trade contracted. The crisis and the government's limited ability to provide direct relief made Hoover deeply unpopular. The 1932 Bonus Army incident, in which World War I veterans seeking early payment of promised bonuses were forcibly removed from Washington, further damaged his reputation. Hoover lost the 1932 election to Franklin D. Roosevelt, winning only six states. After leaving office in March 1933, Hoover largely withdrew from electoral politics but remained an active public figure and writer. He strongly criticized many of Roosevelt's New Deal policies, arguing that they expanded federal power too far and threatened individual liberty and the traditional American system of voluntary cooperation. Hoover continued to work on humanitarian causes and became increasingly concerned with government efficiency and fiscal responsibility. During and after World War II, he again contributed to international relief efforts, serving on committees that examined food and reconstruction problems in Europe. He also worked to reorganize and improve the federal government, including leading commissions under Presidents Truman and Eisenhower that studied the structure and operation of the executive branch. Hoover published numerous books and articles, including his memoirs and writings defending his economic and political philosophy. Although his reputation remained poor for many years, historians increasingly recognized that his administration did more to respond to the Depression than the popular image of complete inaction suggests. Hoover died on October 20, 1964, in New York City at the age of 90. He was buried in West Branch, Iowa, near his birthplace and the presidential library that bears his name. His legacy remains complicated. Hoover is often remembered primarily as the president who occupied the White House when the Great Depression began, making his name closely associated with economic hardship and government failure. Yet his career before and after the presidency reveals a much broader figure: an internationally successful engineer, a self-made businessman, a pioneering humanitarian, and an advocate of efficient and limited government. His administration created important institutions such as the Reconstruction Finance Corporation and expanded federal involvement in public works and economic stabilization, even while resisting the scale and nature of the later New Deal. Hoover's life therefore illustrates both the possibilities and limitations of the ideals of self-reliance, voluntary cooperation, and limited government when confronted with a national economic catastrophe.

William H. Taft William Howard Taft, the 27th President of the United States, was a lawyer, judge, administrator, and statesman whose career was unusual even among American presidents. Born on September 15, 1857, in Cincinnati, Ohio, Taft served in a remarkable variety of positions before and after his presidency, including federal judge, Solicitor General of the United States, governor of the Philippines, Secretary of War, and eventually Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court. Although he is often remembered primarily as the successor to Theodore Roosevelt, Taft's own career was much broader than his four years in the White House. Unlike the energetic and politically aggressive Roosevelt, Taft was temperamentally a judicial and administrative figure who preferred interpreting and enforcing the law to leading public opinion. His greatest ambition was ultimately fulfilled when he became Chief Justice, making him the only person in American history to serve both as President and Chief Justice of the United States. Taft grew up in a prominent Cincinnati family deeply involved in law and Republican politics. His father, Alphonso Taft, was a successful attorney who later served as Secretary of War and Attorney General under President Ulysses S. Grant and as a diplomat under President Chester A. Arthur, while his mother, Louisa Torrey Taft, encouraged intellectual curiosity and civic involvement. William was an excellent student, graduating second in his class from Woodward High School and later second in his class at Yale in 1878. He then studied law at the University of Cincinnati and passed the Ohio bar examination in 1880. From an early age, Taft was strongly influenced by his father's expectations and developed a reputation for being serious, conscientious, and even-tempered. He also struggled throughout his life with his weight, a problem that became one of the most recognizable aspects of his public image. In 1886, he married Helen "Nellie" Herron, an ambitious and intellectually accomplished woman whose political aspirations would play an important role in Taft's eventual rise to the presidency. Taft entered public life as an attorney and quickly moved into positions of increasing importance. In 1881 he became assistant prosecutor of Hamilton County, Ohio, and in 1887 he was appointed a judge of the Cincinnati Superior Court. President Benjamin Harrison appointed him Solicitor General of the United States in 1890, giving Taft the responsibility of representing the federal government before the Supreme Court. In 1892, Harrison appointed him to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit, where he served as a federal judge while also teaching law and eventually becoming dean of the University of Cincinnati Law School. Although Taft had long hoped to become a Supreme Court justice, his career took an unexpected turn when President William McKinley appointed him to lead the civilian government of the Philippines in 1900. Taft established civil institutions, schools, courts, and a civil service system in the islands and became Governor of the Philippines in 1901. In 1904, Theodore Roosevelt brought Taft into his cabinet as Secretary of War, where he became one of Roosevelt's closest advisers and handled major responsibilities involving the Philippines, Cuba, Panama, and American foreign affairs. In 1908, Theodore Roosevelt selected Taft as his successor, believing that Taft would continue the Progressive reforms of his administration. Taft won the election decisively and became president on March 4, 1909. His presidency produced important accomplishments, including expanded federal regulation of railroads through the Mann-Elkins Act, continued enforcement of antitrust laws, the dissolution of Standard Oil and American Tobacco, conservation efforts, and the establishment of a federal postal savings system. In foreign policy, Taft promoted "Dollar Diplomacy," seeking to expand American economic influence abroad, particularly in Latin America and Asia. Yet Taft's presidency became increasingly troubled by conflicts within the Republican Party. His more cautious and judicial approach disappointed many progressives, while his decisions on tariffs, conservation, and the Ballinger-Pinchot controversy alienated Roosevelt and progressive Republicans. Roosevelt eventually broke with Taft, returned to politics, and challenged him for the Republican nomination in 1912. Taft retained the nomination, but Roosevelt's decision to run as the Progressive Party candidate split the Republican vote and helped Democrat Woodrow Wilson win the presidency. After leaving the presidency in 1913, Taft returned to one of his greatest passions: law and constitutional government. He became a professor of law at Yale and remained active in public affairs, including serving as cochairman of the National War Labor Board during World War I. He also supported American participation in the League of Nations, putting him at odds with some Republicans who opposed the organization. Taft's greatest professional achievement, however, came in 1921 when President Warren G. Harding appointed him Chief Justice of the United States. The appointment fulfilled the ambition he had held since his early legal career and allowed him to return to the judicial role for which his temperament was particularly well suited. As Chief Justice, Taft presided over a court that generally favored a cautious interpretation of federal power and wrote 253 opinions during his tenure. Among his significant decisions was Myers v. United States , which affirmed broad presidential authority to remove executive officials. Taft's health declined during his years as Chief Justice, and he resigned from the Court shortly before his death. He died on March 8, 1930, in Washington, D.C., from complications associated with heart disease and other illnesses, and he was buried at Arlington National Cemetery. His funeral was the first presidential funeral to be broadcast on radio. Taft's historical reputation has often been overshadowed by the larger-than-life figure of Theodore Roosevelt and by the political collapse of his presidency, but his career demonstrates that his greatest strengths were judicial judgment, administration, and public service rather than political leadership. His presidency preserved and expanded several Progressive reforms even as his cautious style frustrated progressives, while his later service as Chief Justice gave him the opportunity to make a more lasting contribution to American constitutional law. Taft therefore occupies a unique place in American history: he was the only person ever to lead both the executive and judicial branches of the federal government, and his life illustrates the unusual path of a man who reached the presidency but ultimately found his greatest professional fulfillment on the Supreme Court.