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Citations A list of online sources where Tarpeia gathers information about American history; this is not a complete list and we encourage everyone to check out each one and what they have to offer in regards to helping those like you learn American history. 1 Library of Congress * 3 StatutesandStories * 5 The Gilder Lehrman Institute 7 US History 9 Massachusetts Historical Society 11 Monticello 13 American Antiquarian Society 15 New York Historical Society 17 ConSource * 19 Tufts University 21 AmRev 23 Founders Online 25 Constituting America 27 Institute on the Constitution 29 Avalon Project 31 Miller Center 33 Library of Virginia 35 Huey Long 37 Fulbright U.S. History 39 Civil War Causes* 2 National Archives * 4 Digital Public Library of America 6 Digital History 8 OLL Liberty Fund 10 Georgia Institute of Technology 12 Sanford 14 Alexander Hamilton Awareness Society 16 Organization of American Historians 18 HathiTrust * 20 Fordham University 22 New York State Archives 24 Revolutionary War & Beyond 26 Digital Commonwealth 28 Teaching American History 30 FDR Library 32 Jack Miller Center 34 BlackPast 36 University of Michigan Library 38 American Archive 40 DHRC * * means these are the most used sources Citations

List of amendments which passed Congress but were not ratified by the states Unratified Amendments Title Subject Status Date Deadline States District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment Would treat the District of Columbia as if it were a state regarding representation in the United States Congress (including repealing the 23rd Amendment), representation in the Electoral College and participation in the process by which the Constitution is amended. Proposed August 22, 1978. Ratification period ended August 22, 1985; amendment failed. 08/22/1978 Aug 21, 1985 16 Equal Rights Amendment Would prohibit deprivation of equality of rights by the federal or state governments on account of sex. Proposed March 22, 1972; initial ratification period ended March 22, 1979 (a purported extension period ended June 30, 1982); amendment failed, but status has been challenged in federal court. 03/22/1972 Jan 30, 1982 35 Child Labor Amendment Would empower the federal government to limit, regulate, and prohibit child labor. Pending since June 2, 1924. Latest ratification took place on February 25, 1937. 06/02/1924 None 28 Corwin Amendment Would make the states' "domestic institutions" (slavery) impervious to the constitutional amendment procedures established in Article V and immune to abolition or interference from Congress. Pending since March 2, 1861. Latest ratification took place on June 2, 1863. 03/02/1861 None 2 Titles of Nobility Amendment Would strip citizenship from any United States citizen who accepts a title of nobility from a foreign country. Pending since May 1, 1810. Latest ratification took place on December 9, 1812. 05/01/1810 None 12 Congressional Apportionment Amendment Would strictly regulate the size of congressional districts for representation in the House of Representatives. Pending since September 25, 1789. Latest ratification took place on June 27, 1792. 09/25/1789 None 10

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John F. Kennedy John Fitzgerald Kennedy (1917–1963), commonly known as John F. Kennedy or JFK, was the 35th president of the United States and one of the most prominent figures of the twentieth century. Born into a wealthy and politically influential Massachusetts family, Kennedy was shaped by his experiences during World War II, his rise through Congress, and the intense political conflicts of the Cold War. His presidency lasted only 1,036 days, but it included some of the most consequential events of the era, including the Bay of Pigs invasion, the Cuban Missile Crisis, the beginning of the Apollo program, and the escalation of American involvement in Vietnam. Kennedy became known for his youthful image, powerful oratory, emphasis on public service, and ability to inspire Americans to view the nation as part of a larger historical mission. Although his presidency was brief and remains subject to considerable debate, Kennedy's assassination transformed him into an enduring symbol of a generation and a presidency cut short. Kennedy was born on May 29, 1917, in Brookline, Massachusetts, the second son of Joseph P. Kennedy Sr. and Rose Fitzgerald Kennedy. His father was a successful businessman who later became a major political figure, while his mother came from a prominent Boston political family; his grandfather, John F. Fitzgerald, had served as mayor of Boston. Kennedy grew up in a large family in an environment where competition, achievement, politics, and public service were strongly emphasized. He attended several schools before graduating from Choate in Connecticut in 1935 and entering Harvard University. At Harvard, he studied government and international affairs and developed a particular interest in European politics and the rise of fascism. His senior thesis on British policy toward Nazi Germany was later published as Why England Slept . Kennedy's health was frequently poor during his youth, but he remained determined to establish himself independently of his family's wealth and influence. After graduating from Harvard in 1940, Kennedy entered the U.S. Navy during World War II. In August 1943, while commanding the patrol torpedo boat PT-109 in the Pacific, his boat was rammed and sunk by a Japanese destroyer. Kennedy helped lead his surviving crewmen to safety and was later awarded the Navy and Marine Corps Medal for his actions. After the war, he entered politics and won election to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1946 as a Democrat from Massachusetts. He served three terms before being elected to the Senate in 1952, defeating Republican incumbent Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. Kennedy married Jacqueline Bouvier in 1953, and together they became one of the country's most prominent political couples. During his Senate career, Kennedy developed a reputation as an ambitious and increasingly national political figure, publishing Profiles in Courage , which won the Pulitzer Prize for Biography in 1957. His narrow defeat for the Democratic vice-presidential nomination in 1956 nevertheless positioned him for a presidential campaign. Kennedy won the Democratic presidential nomination in 1960 and selected Senate Majority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson of Texas as his running mate. He narrowly defeated Republican Vice President Richard Nixon in the general election, becoming the youngest person ever elected president at that time and the first Roman Catholic president of the United States. His administration entered office during a period of Cold War tension and economic uncertainty. The failed Bay of Pigs invasion in 1961 damaged his early presidency, but Kennedy subsequently managed one of the most dangerous confrontations of the nuclear age during the Cuban Missile Crisis in October 1962, ultimately securing the removal of Soviet missiles from Cuba while avoiding war. His administration also created the Peace Corps, established the Alliance for Progress in Latin America, expanded the space program, and advanced civil rights legislation. Kennedy initially approached civil rights cautiously, but the violence surrounding the movement and growing pressure from activists led him to make civil rights a central federal issue in 1963. His administration also faced continuing tensions with the Soviet Union and increasing American involvement in Southeast Asia. Kennedy's presidency was marked by a mixture of ambitious initiatives, political setbacks, and a growing effort to define American leadership in the Cold War. Kennedy never experienced a conventional post-presidency because his time in office ended with his death. By 1963, he was preparing for reelection and had begun taking steps toward improving relations with the Soviet Union, including his June 1963 American University speech calling for a new approach to the Cold War and a peaceful settlement between the superpowers. His administration subsequently helped negotiate the Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty with the Soviet Union and United Kingdom. Kennedy also continued to press Congress for civil rights legislation and sought to address economic and social issues at home. Had he survived, his second-term policies remain a matter of historical speculation, particularly regarding Vietnam, civil rights, and the Cold War. Instead, his administration ended before its long-term objectives could be fully tested, leaving later generations to debate how much of Kennedy's reputation rests on his accomplishments and how much rests on the promise of what his presidency might have become. On November 22, 1963, Kennedy was assassinated while riding in a presidential motorcade through Dealey Plaza in Dallas, Texas. He was struck by gunfire and pronounced dead shortly afterward at Parkland Memorial Hospital. Lee Harvey Oswald was arrested and charged with Kennedy's assassination but was killed by nightclub owner Jack Ruby two days later, before he could stand trial. A presidential commission concluded in 1964 that Oswald was responsible for the assassination and that there was no evidence of a conspiracy, though the circumstances surrounding Kennedy's death have remained the subject of enduring public controversy. Kennedy was buried at Arlington National Cemetery, where an eternal flame marks his grave. His death shocked the United States and much of the world and profoundly shaped American political culture. Kennedy's legacy rests on both his actual achievements—particularly the Cuban Missile Crisis, the space program, civil rights, and his efforts to redefine American leadership—and the powerful image of a young president whose life and administration were abruptly cut short. His famous appeal to Americans to ask what they could do for their country became one of the defining expressions of twentieth-century American civic idealism.

Martin Van Buren Martin Van Buren (December 5, 1782 – July 24, 1862) was the eighth President of the United States and the first president born after American independence. A skilled lawyer, political organizer, and master of party politics, Van Buren helped build the Democratic Party and pioneered the modern American political system based on organized parties, disciplined voting blocs, and popular campaigning. His presidency, however, was dominated by the devastating Panic of 1837 and the resulting economic depression, while his later career was increasingly defined by his opposition to the expansion of slavery and his unsuccessful presidential campaign as the Free Soil Party's candidate in 1848. Van Buren was born on December 5, 1782, in Kinderhook, New York, a predominantly Dutch-speaking community along the Hudson River. His father, Abraham Van Buren, was a farmer, tavern keeper, and local political figure, while his mother, Maria Hoes Van Alen Van Buren, came from a Dutch family that had lived in the region for generations. Van Buren received a limited formal education but became interested in law and politics at an early age. He left school as a teenager and studied law in Kinderhook, eventually moving to New York City to continue his legal training. Admitted to the bar in 1803, he returned to Kinderhook and established a successful legal practice while becoming increasingly involved in Democratic-Republican politics. Van Buren's political career advanced rapidly during the early nineteenth century. He served in the New York State Senate from 1812 to 1820 and became a leading figure in the faction that eventually developed into the Albany Regency, one of the country's first highly organized political machines. He served as New York's attorney general, represented the state in the U.S. Senate from 1821 to 1828, and became governor of New York in 1829. A supporter of Andrew Jackson, Van Buren helped unite Jackson's supporters with other opponents of John Quincy Adams and the old Democratic-Republican factions. Jackson appointed him secretary of state in 1829, and Van Buren later became vice president in 1833. More than almost any politician of his generation, Van Buren understood the importance of party organization, patronage, newspapers, conventions, and coordinated political campaigning. Van Buren became president on March 4, 1837, succeeding Andrew Jackson. His administration immediately confronted the Panic of 1837, a financial crisis that produced bank failures, unemployment, declining prices, and widespread economic hardship. Van Buren rejected proposals for large-scale federal intervention in the economy and instead pursued the creation of an independent federal treasury system to separate government finances from private banks. Congress established the Independent Treasury in 1840, although it was repealed under his successor before eventually being restored. Van Buren also faced the continuing controversy over slavery and the annexation of Texas, declining to support immediate annexation because of its potential consequences for sectional conflict and the balance between free and slave states. His administration additionally dealt with the Canadian-related Caroline affair and the Second Seminole War. The economic crisis severely damaged his popularity, however, and he was defeated by Whig candidate William Henry Harrison in the election of 1840. After leaving the presidency on March 4, 1841, Van Buren returned to his estate, Lindenwald, near Kinderhook and remained active in national politics. He sought the Democratic presidential nomination again in 1844 but lost to James K. Polk, partly because his opposition to the immediate annexation of Texas alienated Southern Democrats. By the late 1840s, Van Buren had broken with the Democratic Party over the expansion of slavery. He became the presidential nominee of the newly formed Free Soil Party in 1848, running on the principle that slavery should not be extended into the western territories. Although he won no electoral votes, his campaign demonstrated the growing political importance of opposition to slavery's expansion and may have helped divide the Democratic vote in New York, contributing to Zachary Taylor's victory. Van Buren subsequently remained politically active but never again held public office. Van Buren died at Lindenwald on July 24, 1862, at the age of seventy-nine, during the Civil War. He was buried in Kinderhook Cemetery alongside members of his family. His historical reputation has often been overshadowed by Andrew Jackson, Abraham Lincoln, and the other presidents surrounding him, but Van Buren played a crucial role in transforming American politics from a system dominated by loosely organized factions into one based on permanent political parties. He was instrumental in creating the Democratic Party, helped establish the practices of party conventions, political patronage, organized campaigning, and partisan newspapers, and demonstrated how political organization could determine national elections. Although his presidency is generally remembered as unsuccessful because of the Panic of 1837, his broader legacy as an architect of the modern American party system was substantial, and his later opposition to the expansion of slavery marked an important evolution in his political career.

Benjamin Franklin Benjamin Franklin was born on January 17, 1706 (January 6, Old Style) in Boston, Massachusetts Bay Colony, the fifteenth of seventeen children in a modest household headed by a candle maker.His formal schooling ended by the age of ten, a limitation that pushed him toward lifelong self-education through reading, writing, and relentless curiosity. In 1716, he was apprenticed to his older brother James Franklin, a printer whose shop exposed Benjamin to the power of the written word and public debate. As a teenager, Franklin secretly published a series of satirical essays under the pseudonym “Silence Dogood,” revealing an early mastery of wit, persuasion, and social criticism.Tensions with his brother eventually drove him to flee Boston, and on October 6, 1723, he arrived in Philadelphia nearly penniless but determined to make his way.There, through discipline and talent, Franklin steadily rose from obscurity to independence as a printer and entrepreneur. Franklin married Deborah Read in a common-law marriage on September 1, 1730, establishing a household that anchored his rapidly expanding public life. In 1731, he founded the Library Company of Philadelphia, reflecting his belief that shared knowledge was essential to both personal improvement and civic virtue.Beginning in 1732, his publication of Poor Richard’s Almanack brought him widespread fame, blending humor, aphorism, and moral instruction for a broad colonial audience. His appointment as Postmaster of Philadelphia in 1737 allowed him to reform communication networks and sharpen his understanding of colonial unity. During these years, Franklin also organized volunteer fire companies, helped found a hospital, and promoted civic associations that strengthened urban life. By 1748, financial success enabled him to retire from printing and devote himself fully to science and public service. Franklin’s scientific reputation reached its height with his electrical experiments, culminating in the kite experiment of June 1752, which demonstrated that lightning was a form of electricity. His growing stature led to his appointment in 1753 as Deputy Postmaster General of British North America, a position that further broadened his continental perspective. From 1757 to 1775, Franklin lived largely in London as a colonial agent, navigating imperial politics while attempting to reconcile American rights with British authority. His testimony before Parliament on February 13, 1766, opposing the Stamp Act, displayed his skill as a calm yet devastating advocate for colonial grievances. The humiliating confrontation before the Privy Council on January 29, 1774, shattered his remaining faith in imperial reform and marked his final break with Britain.When Franklin returned permanently to America in May 1775, revolution was no longer avoidable. Franklin joined the Second Continental Congress, where his experience and reputation lent weight to the revolutionary cause. In 1776, he served on the committee that drafted the Declaration of Independence, even as age and illness increasingly burdened him. Sent to France in October 1776, Franklin became the face of the American cause abroad, skillfully blending diplomacy, charm, and strategic patience.His greatest diplomatic triumph came with the Treaty of Alliance on February 6, 1778, securing French support that proved decisive in the war. Franklin later helped negotiate and sign the Treaty of Paris on September 3, 1783, formally ending the conflict with Britain. After returning to Philadelphia on September 14, 1785, he participated in the Constitutional Convention of 1787, before dying on April 17, 1790, widely honored as a symbol of American ingenuity, moderation, and civic wisdom.

James Madison James Madison (March 16, 1751 – June 28, 1836) was born in Virginia and came of age during the intellectual and political ferment of the American Revolution. Educated at the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University), he developed a deep interest in political theory, history, and the weaknesses of confederated governments, ideas that would later shape his contributions to American constitutional design. Madison first rose to prominence in the Virginia legislature and the Continental Congress, where he advocated for stronger national governance under the Articles of Confederation. His most significant early achievement came during the Constitutional Convention of 1787, where he emerged as a leading architect of the new framework of government and played a central role in shaping what became the United States Constitution. His detailed notes from the Convention also make him one of the most important sources for understanding its debates and compromises. Following the Convention, Madison partnered with Alexander Hamilton and John Jay to write The Federalist Papers, a series of essays defending ratification and explaining the principles of the new government. In Congress, he also played a key role in drafting and securing the adoption of the Bill of Rights, which addressed concerns over individual liberties and helped ensure the Constitution’s acceptance. Madison later aligned with Thomas Jefferson in the development of the Democratic-Republican Party, advocating for a more limited federal government and strict interpretation of constitutional powers. In 1809, he succeeded Jefferson as the fourth President of the United States and soon faced major international challenges, particularly rising tensions with Great Britain and France that threatened American neutrality and trade. His presidency was defined most notably by the War of 1812, during which the United States fought to defend its sovereignty against British maritime interference and frontier conflict. Although the war exposed weaknesses in the young nation’s military and financial systems, it ultimately reinforced American independence and contributed to a stronger sense of national identity. Madison retired from public office in 1817 and remained an influential voice in constitutional interpretation and political thought until his death in 1836.

George W. Bush George Walker Bush, the 43rd President of the United States, was born on July 6, 1946, in New Haven, Connecticut, and grew up in a prominent Texas political family. The eldest son of President George H. W. Bush and Barbara Bush, he followed his father into public life but developed a political identity of his own. Bush served as president from 2001 to 2009, leading the nation through the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, the subsequent wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, and major debates over national security, immigration, education, and the role of government. His presidency was one of the most consequential and controversial of the early twenty-first century. Bush spent much of his youth in Midland and Houston, Texas, where his father worked in the oil industry before entering politics. He attended Phillips Academy in Andover, Massachusetts, before enrolling at Yale University, where he earned a bachelor's degree in history in 1968. Like his father, Bush became involved in the oil business after college and later earned a Master of Business Administration from Harvard Business School in 1975. During the Vietnam War era, he served in the Texas Air National Guard as a fighter pilot. His youth was shaped by his family's wealth and political prominence, but Bush later became known for emphasizing his personal struggles and his transformation from a young businessman with a reputation for partying into a committed Christian and family man. Before becoming president, Bush established himself in both business and politics. He founded an oil company in Texas and became involved in other energy ventures, though his business career included financial difficulties before he eventually achieved success. Bush entered electoral politics in 1978 when he unsuccessfully ran for the U.S. House of Representatives. He later became part-owner of the Texas Rangers baseball team, helping raise his public profile in the state. In 1994, Bush defeated incumbent Democratic Governor Ann Richards and became governor of Texas. He was reelected in 1998, becoming the first Texas governor elected to two consecutive four-year terms. His record as governor, particularly his education reforms and emphasis on bipartisan cooperation, helped establish him as a leading Republican presidential contender. Bush won the presidency in the 2000 election against Democratic Vice President Al Gore after a remarkably close contest that was ultimately decided by the U.S. Supreme Court in Bush v. Gore . His presidency was transformed by the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, which killed nearly 3,000 people and led Bush to launch the War on Terror. The United States invaded Afghanistan in 2001 to remove the Taliban regime and destroy al-Qaeda's base there, and in 2003 Bush ordered the invasion of Iraq based largely on the belief that Saddam Hussein's government possessed weapons of mass destruction and posed a threat to American security. His administration also enacted major domestic initiatives, including the No Child Left Behind Act, Medicare prescription-drug coverage, tax cuts, and the creation of the Department of Homeland Security. His second term was marked by the continuing wars, the controversial response to Hurricane Katrina, immigration debates, and the 2008 financial crisis, which produced a severe recession near the end of his presidency. After leaving office in January 2009, Bush largely withdrew from partisan political activity and concentrated on humanitarian and charitable work through the George W. Bush Presidential Center. He became particularly involved in initiatives concerning global health, veterans, military service members, education, and democracy. Bush also developed a new public reputation as an artist, eventually publishing books featuring his paintings of world leaders, veterans, and immigrants. Although he continued to defend many of the major decisions of his presidency, he generally avoided directly criticizing his successors or becoming heavily involved in contemporary partisan politics. His post-presidential years also included public speaking, charitable projects, and work on behalf of former military personnel. His legacy remains deeply debated: supporters credit him with responding decisively to the September 11 attacks, preventing another large-scale terrorist attack on the American homeland during his presidency, advancing education reform, expanding Medicare prescription-drug coverage, and promoting democracy abroad. Critics point to the Iraq War, the absence of the weapons of mass destruction that had been cited as a major justification for the invasion, the treatment of detainees in the War on Terror, the government's response to Hurricane Katrina, and the economic crisis of 2008.

As Chief Representative you are tasked with being the face of the charity, giving interviews, talking to the press, working with the Chief Networker and Chief of Clientele to organize and run social events to get new clients which include new schools to associate with, new donors, and new students. < Back Chief Representative Apply Now Job Type Volunteer About the Role As Chief Representative you are tasked with being the face of the charity, giving interviews, talking to the press, working with the Chief Networker and Chief of Clientele to organize and run social events to get new clients which include new schools to associate with, new donors, and new students. Requirements Experience with being in front of cameras, doing interviews, talking to the press, essentially being the face of the charity. About the Company Amending America is an educational support services 501(c)(3) that specializes in American History, Civics, and Constitutional Law, and provides a variety of different resources for people to learn from including online courses, research projects, videos, and an extensive library of primary source documents. Apply Now

Barack Obama Barack Hussein Obama II, born August 4, 1961, in Honolulu, Hawaii, became the 44th president of the United States and one of the most consequential American political figures of the early twenty-first century. The son of an African father from Kenya and an American mother from Kansas, Obama developed a life story that crossed cultures, races, and regions of the United States. After beginning his career as a community organizer in Chicago, he became a lawyer, Illinois state senator, U.S. senator, and eventually the first African American president in American history. His political career was characterized by an emphasis on civic participation, political reform, economic opportunity, and the idea that Americans could overcome divisions through collective action. Obama's youth was shaped by a diverse upbringing and frequent changes in his family circumstances. His parents divorced when he was two, and he was primarily raised by his mother, Ann Dunham, and his maternal grandparents in Hawaii. From 1967 to 1971, he lived in Indonesia with his mother and stepfather, Lolo Soetoro, attending Indonesian schools before returning to Hawaii, where he attended the prestigious Punahou School and graduated in 1979. Obama later attended Occidental College in Los Angeles before transferring to Columbia University in New York, where he earned a degree in political science in 1983. His multicultural childhood and experiences with questions of race and identity later became central themes in his writing and political career. After graduating from Columbia, Obama briefly worked in New York City before deciding to pursue community service. In 1985, he moved to Chicago and became a community organizer with the Developing Communities Project, working with churches and residents on the South Side to improve housing, employment, and educational opportunities in neighborhoods suffering from industrial decline. After several years, he attended Harvard Law School, where he gained national attention after becoming the first African American president of the Harvard Law Review . He graduated magna cum laude in 1991 and returned to Chicago, where he worked as a civil rights attorney and became involved in voting-rights efforts. He entered electoral politics in 1996 when he was elected to the Illinois State Senate, and in 2004 he won election to the U.S. Senate. His keynote address at the 2004 Democratic National Convention transformed him into a nationally recognized political figure and helped launch his path toward the presidency. Obama announced his candidacy for president in 2007 and defeated Republican Senator John McCain in the 2008 election, becoming the first African American elected president of the United States. He took office on January 20, 2009, amid the worst economic crisis since the Great Depression. During his two terms, his administration responded to the financial crisis, supported the automobile industry, enacted the Affordable Care Act, signed legislation repealing “Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell,” ordered the operation that killed Osama bin Laden, and pursued major changes in American environmental and diplomatic policy. His administration also negotiated the Paris Agreement on climate change and worked toward ending U.S. military involvement in Iraq and Afghanistan, although American forces remained involved in both conflicts. Obama was reelected in 2012, defeating Republican Mitt Romney, and served until January 20, 2017. In 2009, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, making him the fourth U.S. president to receive the honor while in office. After leaving the White House in 2017, Obama returned to private life while remaining active in public affairs. He and Michelle Obama established the Obama Foundation, which focuses on developing young leaders, encouraging civic engagement, and supporting communities around the world. The Obamas also established Higher Ground Productions, producing films, documentaries, and other media, while Obama continued writing and speaking on American politics, democracy, and civic life. In 2020, he published A Promised Land , the first volume of his presidential memoirs. Rather than immediately seeking another political office, Obama has largely used his post-presidency to promote civic participation and mentor a new generation of leaders. As of 2026, he remains active in public life, and the opening of the Obama Presidential Center in Chicago has provided a permanent institution through which his presidency, political career, and ideas will be remembered and studied. His greatest historical significance is likely to rest both on his achievements in office and on the symbolic importance of becoming the first African American president in a nation with a long history of racial conflict. Supporters regard his presidency as a period of expanded health-care access, economic recovery, diplomatic engagement, and social progress, while critics continue to debate his handling of foreign policy, executive power, the economy, and domestic political divisions.