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Harry S. Truman Harry S. Truman (1884–1972) was the 33rd president of the United States, serving from 1945 to 1953 during one of the most consequential transitions in American history. A Democrat from Missouri, Truman unexpectedly assumed the presidency after the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt in April 1945, inheriting the responsibility of guiding the United States through the final months of World War II and the beginning of the Cold War. His presidency included the decision to use atomic bombs against Japan, the creation of the postwar international order, the implementation of the Marshall Plan, the establishment of the Truman Doctrine, and the Korean War. Though his approval ratings fell sharply during his presidency, Truman left office with a reputation for decisiveness, plainspoken leadership, and a willingness to accept responsibility for difficult decisions. Truman was born on May 8, 1884, in Lamar, Missouri, to John Anderson Truman and Martha Ellen Young Truman. His family moved to Independence, Missouri, when he was a child, and he was raised in a farming family with strong Democratic and Baptist influences. Truman graduated from Independence High School in 1901 but did not attend college, instead working in clerical and agricultural jobs while helping his father operate the family farm. He developed an early interest in history and politics and became an avid reader, particularly of military history. When the United States entered World War I in 1917, Truman joined the Missouri National Guard and eventually served as an artillery officer in France, where he gained valuable experience in leadership and administration. After returning from the war, Truman entered politics and business in Missouri. He opened a men's clothing store in Kansas City with a wartime associate, but the business failed during the economic downturn of the early 1920s. Truman nevertheless continued his political career, becoming a county judge in Jackson County, Missouri, in 1922. He later became presiding judge and developed a reputation for supporting public infrastructure projects, including roads and public buildings. In 1934, he was elected to the U.S. Senate, where he initially attracted little national attention. During World War II, however, Truman became nationally prominent as chairman of the Senate Special Committee to Investigate the National Defense Program, commonly known as the Truman Committee, which exposed waste and inefficiency in military procurement. His reputation for hard work and government accountability helped make him a leading national Democratic figure, and in 1944 Roosevelt selected him as his running mate. Truman became president on April 12, 1945, following Roosevelt's sudden death, with almost no preparation for the enormous responsibilities he inherited. Within months, Germany surrendered, and Truman participated in the creation of the United Nations and met with Allied leaders at the Potsdam Conference. In August 1945, he authorized the use of atomic bombs against Hiroshima and Nagasaki, leading to Japan's surrender and the end of World War II. Truman then confronted the emerging rivalry with the Soviet Union and adopted policies that helped establish the Cold War, including the Truman Doctrine, the Marshall Plan, the creation of NATO, and the Berlin Airlift. Domestically, he proposed the Fair Deal, which sought to expand the New Deal, though much of his agenda was blocked by Congress. Truman won an unexpected victory over Republican Thomas E. Dewey in the 1948 presidential election. During his second term, the United States entered the Korean War, and Truman's decision to remove General Douglas MacArthur after MacArthur publicly challenged civilian authority demonstrated Truman's commitment to civilian control of the military. He left office in January 1953 with his presidency deeply controversial but with several institutions of the postwar international order firmly established. After leaving the White House, Truman returned to Independence, Missouri, where he and his wife, Bess, lived a comparatively modest life. He devoted much of his retirement to establishing and developing the Harry S. Truman Presidential Library and Museum, which opened in 1957 and became a center for research into his administration and the history of the presidency. Truman remained politically engaged, writing his memoirs, corresponding with political leaders, giving speeches, and defending many of the decisions made during his presidency. Unlike many former presidents, he did not accumulate great personal wealth after leaving office and became known for his independence from corporate and political influence. As historians reassessed the early Cold War and his leadership during the transition from World War II to the postwar era, Truman's historical reputation gradually improved. Truman died on December 26, 1972, in Kansas City, Missouri, at the age of 88. He was buried at the Truman Library in Independence alongside Bess, who survived him until 1982. His legacy remains closely associated with the transformation of the United States into a leading postwar world power and the emergence of the Cold War international system. Supporters regard him as a president who made extraordinarily difficult decisions without retreating from responsibility, while critics continue to debate his use of atomic weapons, his conduct of the Korean War, and other aspects of his foreign and domestic policies. Over time, Truman has generally risen in historical rankings, and he is now widely regarded as one of the most consequential American presidents of the twentieth century. President, Vice President, Senator

< Back Institute on the Constitution Educational Nonprofit Institute on the Constitution is an educational effort originally out of Pasadena, Maryland, now based in Dover, Delaware. Our desire is to help individuals across America to understand their own history, and to learn and fully appreciate their own heritage by reacquainting them with the worldview and vision of our Founders. We believe that by understanding the way in which the framers of our Constitutional Republic viewed their relationship to God, to other nations, among the various states and to each other, we can gain valuable insight into the foundational principles of America and the difficulties that face us at this time and the times to come. We hope to encourage individuals, families, churches, legislatures, civic and other organizations to become conversant with the foundational principles on which American civil government and proper jurisprudence rest. We believe that, so informed and educated, the American people will be empowered to take an active and meaningful role in the Biblical jurisdictions of family, church and civil government. Our Challenge Alexis de Tocqueville, who toured this country during the 1820 - 30's, and who wrote extensively of his experiences as an observer of American culture, after noting American ignorance about European affairs, wrote the following... “But if you question [the average American] respecting his own country, the cloud that dimmed his intelligence will immediately disperse; his language will become clear and precise as his thoughts. He will inform you what his rights are and by what means he exercises them; he will be able to point out customs which obtain the political world. You will find that he is well acquainted with the rules of the administration, and that he is familiar with the mechanism of the laws. The citizen of the United States does not acquire his practical science and his positive notions from books; the instructions he has acquired may have prepared him for receiving those ideas, but it did not furnish them. The American learns to know the laws by participating in the act of legislation; and he takes a lesson in the forms of government from governing. The great work of society is ever going on before his eyes and, as it were, under his hands.” Clearly, major changes have occurred in America since the time of Tocqueville’s observations and we suffer the results of our current ignorance of our history by living in a culture that gradually acquiesces to increasing infringements on rights and liberties that our Founders considered God-given and unalienable. Indeed, there are many who make the case that we are living in slavery in America at this time.

William McKinley William McKinley was the 25th president of the United States, serving from 1897 until his assassination in 1901. Born on January 29, 1843, in Niles, Ohio, McKinley rose from modest beginnings to become one of the leading Republicans of the late nineteenth century. His presidency marked a major turning point in American history, overseeing the Spanish-American War, the acquisition of overseas territories, the emergence of the United States as a world power, and a return to economic prosperity after the severe depression of the 1890s. McKinley grew up in a large, hardworking family in Ohio and received his early education in local schools before attending Allegheny College in Pennsylvania. His education was interrupted by illness and financial difficulties, and he returned to Ohio, where he studied law and eventually began working as a teacher. When the Civil War began in 1861, McKinley enlisted in the Union Army as a private in the 23rd Ohio Volunteer Infantry. He served throughout the war and distinguished himself at the Battle of Antietam, where he repeatedly carried food and supplies to soldiers under heavy fire. By the end of the war, he had risen to the rank of brevet major, a distinction that remained an important part of his public identity. After the war, McKinley studied law, was admitted to the Ohio bar in 1867, and established a successful legal practice in Canton, Ohio. He entered politics as a Republican and was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1876. During his fourteen years in Congress, he became one of the nation's leading advocates of protective tariffs, believing that tariffs could protect American industries and workers from foreign competition. His support for the McKinley Tariff of 1890 made him nationally prominent, although the law's high rates contributed to Republican losses in the 1890 elections and ended his congressional career. He subsequently served as governor of Ohio from 1892 to 1896, where he gained a reputation as a moderate, disciplined, and increasingly popular Republican leader. His political partnership with wealthy industrialist Mark Hanna helped secure the Republican presidential nomination in 1896. McKinley's presidency began during a period of economic uncertainty and intense political debate, but he quickly established a program centered on economic recovery, protective tariffs, and the gold standard. The Dingley Tariff of 1897 raised tariff rates, while the Gold Standard Act of 1900 formally placed the nation's currency on a gold basis. The defining event of his presidency, however, was the Spanish-American War of 1898. Following Spain's brutal suppression of the Cuban independence movement and the destruction of the USS Maine in Havana Harbor, McKinley asked Congress for authority to intervene, and war was declared in April 1898. The United States rapidly defeated Spanish forces in Cuba and the Philippines and captured Puerto Rico and Guam. Under the Treaty of Paris, Spain surrendered control of Cuba and ceded Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines to the United States. McKinley subsequently supported the annexation of Hawaii and pursued an increasingly active American role abroad, transforming the United States into an emerging overseas power. After winning reelection in 1900, McKinley began his second term with the country enjoying relative prosperity and greater international influence. He traveled widely during the spring and summer of 1901, including a highly publicized visit to the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo, New York. On September 5, he delivered a speech at the exposition advocating expanded international commerce and friendly relations among nations. The following day, while greeting visitors at the exposition's Temple of Music, McKinley was shot twice by Leon Czolgosz, an anarchist who opposed government and political authority. McKinley initially appeared to recover, but his condition suddenly deteriorated as a result of infection and gangrene. He died on September 14, 1901, at the age of fifty-eight. Vice President Theodore Roosevelt succeeded him, and McKinley's death helped usher in a new era of American politics. His legacy remains closely associated with the rise of the United States as a global power, the Spanish-American War, the expansion of American territory, protective tariffs, and the transition from the nineteenth-century republic into the increasingly international and industrial America of the twentieth century. President, Governor, Representative

As Chief Censor you are tasked with reporting to the Joint Chiefs of Staff data gathered by relevant Chiefs for meetings in the form of presentation. < Back Censor Apply Now Job Type Volunteer About the Role As Chief Censor you are tasked with reporting to the Joint Chiefs of Staff data gathered by relevant Chiefs for meetings in the form of presentation. Requirements Have Experience with data collection, organization, and presentation. About the Company Amending America is an educational support services 501(c)(3) that specializes in American History, Civics, and Constitutional Law, and provides a variety of different resources for people to learn from including online courses, research projects, videos, and an extensive library of primary source documents. Apply Now

< Back Megan Krause Volunteer Megan Krause is an American Historical Researcher at Tarpeia. She recently graduated from St. Norbert College in De Pere, Wisconsin with a bachelor’s degree in Political Science and Theology and Religious Studies. She is most captivated by the Early Republic era and religious history. In her free time Megan enjoys experimenting with new recipes, walking the beaches of Lake Michigan, and playing with her two dogs, Finnigan and Ridley. She is excited to develop her research with Tarpeia because she firmly believes, “Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it (George Santayana).”

William Paterson Paterson was one of the most accomplished members of the early Supreme Court. His career encompassed nearly every level of the new American constitutional system: he helped create New Jersey's revolutionary government, represented the state at the Constitutional Convention, served in the U.S. Senate, became governor of New Jersey, and ultimately served thirteen years on the Supreme Court. His judicial opinions are particularly important for understanding early American federalism and the distinction between constitutional law and ordinary legislation. Paterson was born in Ireland on December 24, 1745, and immigrated with his family to the American colonies while still a child. His family settled in New Jersey, where his father operated a school. Paterson attended the College of New Jersey, now Princeton University, graduating in 1763, and subsequently studied law under Richard Stockton. Paterson was admitted to the New Jersey bar in 1768 and quickly entered public life. During the Revolution he served as secretary of New Jersey's Provincial Congress and helped draft the state's first constitution. After independence he served as New Jersey's attorney general, became a delegate to the Constitutional Convention of 1787, and signed the Constitution. He subsequently served in the U.S. Senate from 1789 to 1790 before becoming governor of New Jersey. Washington nominated Paterson to the Supreme Court on March 4, 1793, and he took his seat later that year. Paterson became one of the Court's most important early opinion writers. His best-known constitutional opinion came in Calder v. Bull (1798), where the Court considered whether a state legislature's retroactive law violated constitutional limitations. Paterson explained that certain fundamental principles existed beyond the specifically enumerated constitutional restrictions, while also distinguishing between constitutional limitations and ordinary judicial policy preferences. He also wrote the Court's opinion in United States v. La Vengeance and participated in important early cases concerning federal jurisdiction and admiralty. Paterson remained on the Court for the remainder of his life. His health declined during his final years, and he died near Albany, New York, on September 9, 1806, while still serving as a justice. He was seventy years old. Paterson helped define the early Court's understanding of the federal government's constitutional structure. His opinions are especially important because they demonstrate that early constitutional interpretation was not limited to literal textualism: Paterson also recognized principles inherent in the constitutional order. His Calder opinion became particularly influential in later debates over substantive constitutional limitations on legislative power. Constitutional approach: Original/structural constitutionalist with natural-law elements. His jurisprudence combined constitutional text with structural principles and what he regarded as fundamental principles of republican government. Key Supreme Court cases Case Subject Paterson's participation Vanhorne's Lessee v. Dorrance (1795) State constitutional limitations Opinion in the circuit court Hylton v. United States (1796) Federal taxation Participated Calder v. Bull (1798) Ex post facto laws / fundamental rights Separate opinion United States v. La Vengeance (1796) Admiralty jurisdiction Opinion of the Court Cooper v. Telfair (1800) Constitutional review Participated Stuart v. Laird (1803) Judiciary Act / judicial power Participated Little v. Barreme (1804) Executive power / maritime seizure Participated Separate opinions: His most famous separate opinion was in Calder v. Bull , where he articulated a broader theory of fundamental constitutional limitations. Justice, Governor, Senator, Delegate to the Constitutional Convention

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Millard Fillmore Millard Fillmore was the 13th president of the United States, serving from July 1850 to March 1853. Born on January 7, 1800, in Cayuga County, New York, Fillmore rose from extreme poverty to become a lawyer, congressman, vice president, and ultimately president. His career was shaped by his belief in education, economic opportunity, and political compromise, but his presidency became dominated by the increasingly bitter sectional conflict over slavery. Fillmore's youth was marked by hardship. He grew up on his family's struggling farm and received very little formal education before being apprenticed to a cloth maker at age fifteen. Dissatisfied with the harsh conditions of his apprenticeship, he borrowed money to purchase his freedom and returned home, where he devoted himself to self-education. He attended school for several months and was encouraged by his teacher, Abigail Powers, who later became his wife. Fillmore eventually studied law while working as a clerk and teacher, was admitted to the New York bar in 1823, and married Abigail in 1826. Fillmore entered politics in western New York during the rise of the Anti-Masonic movement. He was elected to the New York State Assembly in 1829 and then to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1832. After the Anti-Masonic Party declined, Fillmore became a Whig and developed a close political relationship with party leader Thurlow Weed. During his congressional career, he served on the powerful Ways and Means Committee and eventually became its chairman, while supporting tariffs and economic policies associated with the Whigs. He opposed slavery but believed that sectional disputes, particularly over slavery's expansion, had to be resolved through compromise rather than confrontation. After leaving Congress in 1843, Fillmore unsuccessfully ran for governor of New York before becoming the state's comptroller in 1847. His strong performance in that position helped secure his selection as Zachary Taylor's running mate in the 1848 presidential election. Fillmore became president unexpectedly when Zachary Taylor died on July 9, 1850. Taking office the following day, Fillmore inherited a nation deeply divided over whether slavery would be permitted in the territories acquired from Mexico. Unlike Taylor, who had resisted some of the proposed compromises, Fillmore strongly supported Henry Clay's Compromise of 1850 and appointed Daniel Webster as secretary of state to help advance it. Congress ultimately passed a series of measures that admitted California as a free state, organized New Mexico and Utah as territories using popular sovereignty, settled the Texas-New Mexico boundary, abolished the slave trade in Washington, D.C., and strengthened the Fugitive Slave Act. Fillmore believed the compromise had prevented an immediate national crisis, but the Fugitive Slave Act made him deeply unpopular among many Northerners because it required federal assistance in the capture and return of escaped enslaved people. After leaving office in 1853, Fillmore's political fortunes declined along with the Whig Party. He was denied the Whig presidential nomination in 1852, and after the party collapsed, he accepted the presidential nomination of the American Party, commonly known as the Know-Nothings, in 1856. Fillmore won Maryland and received more than one-fifth of the national popular vote, but he was decisively defeated by Democrat James Buchanan while the emerging Republican Party established itself as the principal opposition to the Democrats. Fillmore subsequently retired from national politics and devoted much of his later life to his family and civic and philanthropic activities in Buffalo. He married Caroline Carmichael McIntosh in 1858 after Abigail Fillmore's death in 1853. Fillmore's final years were spent largely in Buffalo, where he remained involved in civic affairs and supported efforts to preserve the Union during the Civil War, although his political views put him at odds with Abraham Lincoln and later with Reconstruction policies. He suffered a stroke and died on March 8, 1874, at the age of seventy-four, and was buried in Forest Lawn Cemetery in Buffalo. His legacy remains controversial: he is remembered as a president who attempted to preserve the Union through compromise at a moment of extreme sectional tension, but his support and enforcement of the Fugitive Slave Act tied his presidency to one of the most controversial aspects of the antebellum slavery crisis. His career also illustrates the dramatic decline of the Whig Party and the political realignment that preceded the Civil War. President, Vice President, Representative

Samuel Chase Chase was one of the most colorful and controversial members of the founding generation. He participated in the Revolution, signed the Declaration of Independence, helped create Maryland's revolutionary government, and eventually became a prominent Federalist judge. His later judicial career became inseparable from the constitutional question of judicial independence when Jeffersonian Republicans attempted to remove him through impeachment. Chase was born on April 17, 1741, in Somerset County, Maryland, the son of an Anglican clergyman. His father educated him at home, and Chase studied classical subjects before reading law. He moved to Annapolis, was admitted to the Maryland bar in 1761, and established a successful legal practice. Chase entered Maryland politics and became an outspoken opponent of British taxation. He served in the Continental Congress from 1774 to 1778 and signed the Declaration of Independence. During the Revolution he participated in Maryland's constitutional government and later served as chief justice of the Baltimore District Criminal Court and chief justice of the Maryland General Court. His political career was marked by vigorous Federalist views, including strong support for the Constitution and opposition to the Democratic-Republican movement. President George Washington nominated Chase to the Supreme Court in January 1796, and the Senate confirmed him. Chase quickly developed a reputation for forceful judicial opinions and partisan political expression. He participated in important cases including Ware v. Hylton , Calder v. Bull , Marbury v. Madison , and Fletcher v. Peck . During the Jefferson administration, Chase was accused of using his judicial office to promote Federalist politics, particularly through his conduct of political trials and his criticism of Jeffersonian policies. The House of Representatives impeached Chase in 1804, alleging multiple forms of judicial misconduct. The Senate conducted his impeachment trial in 1805 but failed to reach the constitutionally required two-thirds vote for conviction. His acquittal became an important event in the development of judicial independence because a Supreme Court justice remained in office despite intense political opposition. Chase continued serving on the Court after his acquittal and became increasingly restrained in his political behavior. He participated in some of the Marshall Court's most important early decisions, including Marbury v. Madison and McCulloch v. Maryland . Chase died in Washington, D.C., on June 19, 1811, at the age of seventy. Chase's legacy is divided between his judicial contributions and his impeachment. His acquittal established an important historical precedent against using impeachment simply as a mechanism for removing judges because of political disagreement or unpopular judicial behavior. His career also illustrates the difficult transition from the openly political statesmanship of the founding generation to the increasingly independent professional judiciary of the nineteenth century. Constitutional approach: Originalist/Federalist constitutionalist. Chase strongly favored constitutional limitations on government and federal judicial independence. His approach was not “living constitutionalist,” although his opinions sometimes invoked broad principles beyond the precise constitutional text. Key Supreme Court cases Case Subject Chase's participation Ware v. Hylton (1796) Treaty supremacy Participated Calder v. Bull (1798) Ex post facto laws Separate opinion Cooper v. Telfair (1800) Judicial review Participated Stuart v. Laird (1803) Judicial power Participated Marbury v. Madison (1803) Judicial review Participated Fletcher v. Peck (1810) Contract Clause Participated McCulloch v. Maryland (1810) Federal power / Necessary and Proper Clause Participated Separate opinions: Chase's most important separate opinion was in Calder v. Bull , where he articulated a natural-rights theory limiting legislative authority even beyond the Constitution's specifically enumerated prohibitions. Delegate to Continental Congress, Justice

Amending America ltd is an educational nonprofit specializing in American history. We curate online curricula, host a repository consisting of thousands of primary source documents, and publish scholarly papers that enrich American history on our website. Support History & Civic Revival From the Frontier of Scholarship to the Classroom — An Encyclopedia of American Political Thought & Practice Where History Guides Citizens America Guided by Wisdom Happy 250 Years of American Independence! A documented history of American political thought & practice. Modern Era 1989-Today End of History 1989 ― 2001 Chapter 24 End of History 1989 ― 2001 View Chapter War on Terror 2001 ― 2017 Chapter 25 War on Terror 2001 ― 2017 View Chapter Crisis of Populism 2017 ― Today Chapter 26 Crisis of Populism 2017 ― Today View Chapter Cold War Era 1945-1989 Containment 1945 ― 1961 Chapter 21 Containment 1945 ― 1961 View Chapter Detente 1961 ― 1977 Chapter 22 Detente 1961 ― 1977 View Chapter Rearmament 1977 ― 1989 Chapter 23 Rearmament 1977 ― 1989 View Chapter World War Era 1913-1945 World War I 1913 ― 1921 Chapter 17 World War I 1913 ― 1921 View Chapter Roaring Twenties 1921 ― 1929 Chapter 18 Roaring Twenties 1921 ― 1929 View Chapter Great Depression 1929 ― 1941 Chapter 19 Great Depression 1929 ― 1941 View Chapter World War II 1941 ― 1945 Chapter 20 World War II 1941 ― 1945 View Chapter Progressive Era 1885-1913 Gilded Age 1885 ― 1897 Chapter 15 Gilded Age 1885 ― 1897 View Chapter New Nationalism 1897 ― 1913 Chapter 16 New Nationalism 1897 ― 1913 View Chapter Emancipation Era 1849-1885 Sectional Crisis 1849 ― 1860 Chapter 12 Sectional Crisis 1849 ― 1860 View Chapter Civil War 1860 ― 1865 Chapter 13 Civil War 1860 ― 1865 View Chapter Reconstruction 1865 ― 1885 Chapter 14 Reconstruction 1865 ― 1885 View Chapter Antebellum Era 1817-1849 Good Feelings 1817 ― 1829 Chapter 9 Good Feelings 1817 ― 1829 View Chapter Common Man 1829 ― 1841 Chapter 10 Common Man 1829 ― 1841 View Chapter Manifest Destiny 1841 ― 1849 Chapter 11 Manifest Destiny 1841 ― 1849 View Chapter Founding Era 1784-1817 Chapter 6 More Perfect Union 1784 ― 1789 More Perfect Union 1784 ― 1789 View Chapter Chapter 7 Federalist Regime 1789 ― 1801 Federalist Regime 1789 ― 1801 View Chapter Chapter 8 Republican Liberty 1801 ― 1817 Republican Liberty 1801 ― 1817 View Chapter Revolutionary Era 1763-1784 Chapter 4 Join or Die 1763 ― 1775 Join or Die 1763 ― 1775 View Chapter Chapter 5 Independence 1775 ― 1784 Independence 1775 ― 1784 View Chapter Compendium The Compendium is our online library of thousands of primary source documents & events from 1492-today. 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< Back David Tubbs Advisor Professor David Tubbs earned his PhD. in politics at Princeton University, concentrating in political philosophy, constitutional law, and Russian studies. He began advising in Fall 2024. In his scholarship, Professor Tubbs writes on topics in political philosophy and constitutional law and contemporary controversies in public policy. His book, Freedom’s Orphans , was published by Princeton University Press in 2007. His shorter essays and book reviews have appeared in publications such as the Wall Street Journal , Los Angeles Times , Academic Questions , Public Discourse , Touchstone , First Things , National Review , The American Spectator , and The New Criterion . Professor Tubbs teaches a range of courses at King’s, including Constitutional Law; Statesmanship; Civil Rights; Public Policy; International Politics; and Enlightenment & Liberal Democracy. He also regularly serves as an advisor to students working on their senior theses. He has lectured in Russia, Ukraine, Poland, Hungary, Uzbekistan, and Kazakhstan. He was previously Visiting Faculty Fellow at Irkutsk State University in Irkutsk, Russia, and the W.H. Brady Visiting Fellow at the American Enterprise Institute in Washington, D.C. In spring 2014 Professor Tubbs was Visiting Associate Professor of Politics at Princeton University. In academic year 2017-18, he was the Ann & Herbert W. Vaughn Visiting Fellow in the James Madison Program at Princeton. He is currently a Visiting Associate Professor of History at Princeton University.