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Millard Fillmore Millard Fillmore was the 13th president of the United States, serving from July 1850 to March 1853. Born on January 7, 1800, in Cayuga County, New York, Fillmore rose from extreme poverty to become a lawyer, congressman, vice president, and ultimately president. His career was shaped by his belief in education, economic opportunity, and political compromise, but his presidency became dominated by the increasingly bitter sectional conflict over slavery. Fillmore's youth was marked by hardship. He grew up on his family's struggling farm and received very little formal education before being apprenticed to a cloth maker at age fifteen. Dissatisfied with the harsh conditions of his apprenticeship, he borrowed money to purchase his freedom and returned home, where he devoted himself to self-education. He attended school for several months and was encouraged by his teacher, Abigail Powers, who later became his wife. Fillmore eventually studied law while working as a clerk and teacher, was admitted to the New York bar in 1823, and married Abigail in 1826. Fillmore entered politics in western New York during the rise of the Anti-Masonic movement. He was elected to the New York State Assembly in 1829 and then to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1832. After the Anti-Masonic Party declined, Fillmore became a Whig and developed a close political relationship with party leader Thurlow Weed. During his congressional career, he served on the powerful Ways and Means Committee and eventually became its chairman, while supporting tariffs and economic policies associated with the Whigs. He opposed slavery but believed that sectional disputes, particularly over slavery's expansion, had to be resolved through compromise rather than confrontation. After leaving Congress in 1843, Fillmore unsuccessfully ran for governor of New York before becoming the state's comptroller in 1847. His strong performance in that position helped secure his selection as Zachary Taylor's running mate in the 1848 presidential election. Fillmore became president unexpectedly when Zachary Taylor died on July 9, 1850. Taking office the following day, Fillmore inherited a nation deeply divided over whether slavery would be permitted in the territories acquired from Mexico. Unlike Taylor, who had resisted some of the proposed compromises, Fillmore strongly supported Henry Clay's Compromise of 1850 and appointed Daniel Webster as secretary of state to help advance it. Congress ultimately passed a series of measures that admitted California as a free state, organized New Mexico and Utah as territories using popular sovereignty, settled the Texas-New Mexico boundary, abolished the slave trade in Washington, D.C., and strengthened the Fugitive Slave Act. Fillmore believed the compromise had prevented an immediate national crisis, but the Fugitive Slave Act made him deeply unpopular among many Northerners because it required federal assistance in the capture and return of escaped enslaved people. After leaving office in 1853, Fillmore's political fortunes declined along with the Whig Party. He was denied the Whig presidential nomination in 1852, and after the party collapsed, he accepted the presidential nomination of the American Party, commonly known as the Know-Nothings, in 1856. Fillmore won Maryland and received more than one-fifth of the national popular vote, but he was decisively defeated by Democrat James Buchanan while the emerging Republican Party established itself as the principal opposition to the Democrats. Fillmore subsequently retired from national politics and devoted much of his later life to his family and civic and philanthropic activities in Buffalo. He married Caroline Carmichael McIntosh in 1858 after Abigail Fillmore's death in 1853. Fillmore's final years were spent largely in Buffalo, where he remained involved in civic affairs and supported efforts to preserve the Union during the Civil War, although his political views put him at odds with Abraham Lincoln and later with Reconstruction policies. He suffered a stroke and died on March 8, 1874, at the age of seventy-four, and was buried in Forest Lawn Cemetery in Buffalo. His legacy remains controversial: he is remembered as a president who attempted to preserve the Union through compromise at a moment of extreme sectional tension, but his support and enforcement of the Fugitive Slave Act tied his presidency to one of the most controversial aspects of the antebellum slavery crisis. His career also illustrates the dramatic decline of the Whig Party and the political realignment that preceded the Civil War. President, Vice President, Representative

Samuel Chase Chase was one of the most colorful and controversial members of the founding generation. He participated in the Revolution, signed the Declaration of Independence, helped create Maryland's revolutionary government, and eventually became a prominent Federalist judge. His later judicial career became inseparable from the constitutional question of judicial independence when Jeffersonian Republicans attempted to remove him through impeachment. Chase was born on April 17, 1741, in Somerset County, Maryland, the son of an Anglican clergyman. His father educated him at home, and Chase studied classical subjects before reading law. He moved to Annapolis, was admitted to the Maryland bar in 1761, and established a successful legal practice. Chase entered Maryland politics and became an outspoken opponent of British taxation. He served in the Continental Congress from 1774 to 1778 and signed the Declaration of Independence. During the Revolution he participated in Maryland's constitutional government and later served as chief justice of the Baltimore District Criminal Court and chief justice of the Maryland General Court. His political career was marked by vigorous Federalist views, including strong support for the Constitution and opposition to the Democratic-Republican movement. President George Washington nominated Chase to the Supreme Court in January 1796, and the Senate confirmed him. Chase quickly developed a reputation for forceful judicial opinions and partisan political expression. He participated in important cases including Ware v. Hylton , Calder v. Bull , Marbury v. Madison , and Fletcher v. Peck . During the Jefferson administration, Chase was accused of using his judicial office to promote Federalist politics, particularly through his conduct of political trials and his criticism of Jeffersonian policies. The House of Representatives impeached Chase in 1804, alleging multiple forms of judicial misconduct. The Senate conducted his impeachment trial in 1805 but failed to reach the constitutionally required two-thirds vote for conviction. His acquittal became an important event in the development of judicial independence because a Supreme Court justice remained in office despite intense political opposition. Chase continued serving on the Court after his acquittal and became increasingly restrained in his political behavior. He participated in some of the Marshall Court's most important early decisions, including Marbury v. Madison and McCulloch v. Maryland . Chase died in Washington, D.C., on June 19, 1811, at the age of seventy. Chase's legacy is divided between his judicial contributions and his impeachment. His acquittal established an important historical precedent against using impeachment simply as a mechanism for removing judges because of political disagreement or unpopular judicial behavior. His career also illustrates the difficult transition from the openly political statesmanship of the founding generation to the increasingly independent professional judiciary of the nineteenth century. Constitutional approach: Originalist/Federalist constitutionalist. Chase strongly favored constitutional limitations on government and federal judicial independence. His approach was not “living constitutionalist,” although his opinions sometimes invoked broad principles beyond the precise constitutional text. Key Supreme Court cases Case Subject Chase's participation Ware v. Hylton (1796) Treaty supremacy Participated Calder v. Bull (1798) Ex post facto laws Separate opinion Cooper v. Telfair (1800) Judicial review Participated Stuart v. Laird (1803) Judicial power Participated Marbury v. Madison (1803) Judicial review Participated Fletcher v. Peck (1810) Contract Clause Participated McCulloch v. Maryland (1810) Federal power / Necessary and Proper Clause Participated Separate opinions: Chase's most important separate opinion was in Calder v. Bull , where he articulated a natural-rights theory limiting legislative authority even beyond the Constitution's specifically enumerated prohibitions. Delegate to Continental Congress, Justice

Amending America ltd is an educational nonprofit specializing in American history. We curate online curricula, host a repository consisting of thousands of primary source documents, and publish scholarly papers that enrich American history on our website. Support History & Civic Revival From the Frontier of Scholarship to the Classroom — An Encyclopedia of American Political Thought & Practice Where History Guides Citizens America Guided by Wisdom Happy 250 Years of American Independence! A documented history of American political thought & practice. Modern Era 1989-Today End of History 1989 ― 2001 Chapter 24 End of History 1989 ― 2001 View Chapter War on Terror 2001 ― 2017 Chapter 25 War on Terror 2001 ― 2017 View Chapter Crisis of Populism 2017 ― Today Chapter 26 Crisis of Populism 2017 ― Today View Chapter Cold War Era 1945-1989 Containment 1945 ― 1961 Chapter 21 Containment 1945 ― 1961 View Chapter Detente 1961 ― 1977 Chapter 22 Detente 1961 ― 1977 View Chapter Rearmament 1977 ― 1989 Chapter 23 Rearmament 1977 ― 1989 View Chapter World War Era 1913-1945 World War I 1913 ― 1921 Chapter 17 World War I 1913 ― 1921 View Chapter Roaring Twenties 1921 ― 1929 Chapter 18 Roaring Twenties 1921 ― 1929 View Chapter Great Depression 1929 ― 1941 Chapter 19 Great Depression 1929 ― 1941 View Chapter World War II 1941 ― 1945 Chapter 20 World War II 1941 ― 1945 View Chapter Progressive Era 1885-1913 Gilded Age 1885 ― 1897 Chapter 15 Gilded Age 1885 ― 1897 View Chapter New Nationalism 1897 ― 1913 Chapter 16 New Nationalism 1897 ― 1913 View Chapter Emancipation Era 1849-1885 Sectional Crisis 1849 ― 1860 Chapter 12 Sectional Crisis 1849 ― 1860 View Chapter Civil War 1860 ― 1865 Chapter 13 Civil War 1860 ― 1865 View Chapter Reconstruction 1865 ― 1885 Chapter 14 Reconstruction 1865 ― 1885 View Chapter Antebellum Era 1817-1849 Good Feelings 1817 ― 1829 Chapter 9 Good Feelings 1817 ― 1829 View Chapter Common Man 1829 ― 1841 Chapter 10 Common Man 1829 ― 1841 View Chapter Manifest Destiny 1841 ― 1849 Chapter 11 Manifest Destiny 1841 ― 1849 View Chapter Founding Era 1784-1817 Chapter 6 More Perfect Union 1784 ― 1789 More Perfect Union 1784 ― 1789 View Chapter Chapter 7 Federalist Regime 1789 ― 1801 Federalist Regime 1789 ― 1801 View Chapter Chapter 8 Republican Liberty 1801 ― 1817 Republican Liberty 1801 ― 1817 View Chapter Revolutionary Era 1763-1784 Chapter 4 Join or Die 1763 ― 1775 Join or Die 1763 ― 1775 View Chapter Chapter 5 Independence 1775 ― 1784 Independence 1775 ― 1784 View Chapter Compendium The Compendium is our online library of thousands of primary source documents & events from 1492-today. Pick a chapter below to view documents. Sponsor an Era Colonial Era 1492-1763 La Conquista 1492 ― 1603 Chapter 1 La Conquista 1492 ― 1603 View Chapter Nova Britannia 1603 ― 1675 Chapter 2 Nova Britannia 1603 ― 1675 View Chapter Intercolonial Wars 1675 ― 1763 Chapter 3 Intercolonial Wars 1675 ― 1763 View Chapter A primary site for primary sources, comprising thousands of historical documents. Curriculum The Curriculum is our online courses covering American political history. FYI all of the courses are still under development. 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< Back David Tubbs Advisor Professor David Tubbs earned his PhD. in politics at Princeton University, concentrating in political philosophy, constitutional law, and Russian studies. He began advising in Fall 2024. In his scholarship, Professor Tubbs writes on topics in political philosophy and constitutional law and contemporary controversies in public policy. His book, Freedom’s Orphans , was published by Princeton University Press in 2007. His shorter essays and book reviews have appeared in publications such as the Wall Street Journal , Los Angeles Times , Academic Questions , Public Discourse , Touchstone , First Things , National Review , The American Spectator , and The New Criterion . Professor Tubbs teaches a range of courses at King’s, including Constitutional Law; Statesmanship; Civil Rights; Public Policy; International Politics; and Enlightenment & Liberal Democracy. He also regularly serves as an advisor to students working on their senior theses. He has lectured in Russia, Ukraine, Poland, Hungary, Uzbekistan, and Kazakhstan. He was previously Visiting Faculty Fellow at Irkutsk State University in Irkutsk, Russia, and the W.H. Brady Visiting Fellow at the American Enterprise Institute in Washington, D.C. In spring 2014 Professor Tubbs was Visiting Associate Professor of Politics at Princeton University. In academic year 2017-18, he was the Ann & Herbert W. Vaughn Visiting Fellow in the James Madison Program at Princeton. He is currently a Visiting Associate Professor of History at Princeton University.

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Thomas Johnson Thomas Johnson was one of the prominent Maryland political and legal figures of the Revolutionary generation. His career included service in the colonial legislature, participation in the Continental Congress, leadership of Maryland's revolutionary government, and later judicial service. Although his Supreme Court tenure lasted only about eighteen months, his earlier political career placed him among the generation that created both the state and federal constitutional governments. Johnson was born on November 4, 1732, in Calvert County, Maryland, into a prosperous family of English descent. His father, Thomas Johnson Sr., was a landowner and public official, and the family possessed substantial property in the colony. Johnson studied privately before reading law and establishing a legal practice in Annapolis. Johnson entered the Maryland legislature during the 1760s and became an increasingly prominent opponent of British taxation. He served in the Continental Congress and participated in Maryland's revolutionary government. In 1777, the Maryland legislature elected him the state's first governor under its new constitution. During the Revolution he supported the American war effort and worked to strengthen Maryland's contribution to the Continental cause. After leaving the governorship, Johnson practiced law and served as a judge on Maryland's General Court. President Washington nominated Johnson to the Supreme Court on November 7, 1791, and the Senate confirmed him two days later. He joined the Court during the transition from the Jay Court's very small docket to a somewhat more active federal judiciary. Johnson participated in cases including Georgia v. Brailsford and Hayburn's Case . His short tenure produced relatively little surviving jurisprudence, and he did not become a major author of constitutional opinions. Johnson's health deteriorated during his time on the Court, and he resigned on January 16, 1793. He returned to Maryland and lived primarily in retirement, although he continued to participate occasionally in public affairs. He died at Rose Hill near Frederick on October 26, 1819, at the age of eighty-six. Johnson's greatest importance lies in his Revolutionary and state-government career rather than his brief Supreme Court service. As Maryland's first governor under the state's revolutionary constitution, he helped establish one of the new American republics created during the Revolution. His Supreme Court career demonstrates how early federal appointments often went to experienced state leaders whose judicial records were necessarily limited by the Court's small early docket. Constitutional approach: Original/structural constitutionalist. There is insufficient Supreme Court material to assign Johnson a highly developed judicial philosophy. His political career, however, places him firmly within the founding-era constitutional tradition rather than anything resembling later progressive or living constitutionalism. Key Supreme Court cases: Case Subject Johnson's participation Georgia v. Brailsford (1792) State sovereignty/property Participated Hayburn's Case (1792) Separation of powers Participated Justice, Governor, General, Delegate to Continental Congress

Alfred Moore Alfred Moore came from one of North Carolina's most prominent legal families and entered public life during the Revolution. His career included military service, prosecution of Loyalists, service as North Carolina's attorney general, and judicial office before he joined the Supreme Court. His tenure on the federal Court was short and his health poor, limiting his influence as an individual opinion writer. Moore was born on May 21, 1755, in New Hanover County, North Carolina. His father, Maurice Moore, was a prominent colonial judge, and his uncle James Moore was a Revolutionary general. Alfred received a classical education before studying law, preparing him for a legal and political career in the colony. When the Revolution began, Moore entered the Continental Army and served as an officer. His father and brother were also prominent Patriots, and the Moore family became deeply involved in the revolutionary government of North Carolina. After the war, Moore became North Carolina's attorney general and prosecuted Loyalists accused of treason. He later served as a judge of the state's superior courts and became one of North Carolina's leading lawyers. President John Adams nominated Moore to the Supreme Court on December 16, 1799, and the Senate confirmed him the next day. Moore joined the Court while John Marshall was serving as Chief Justice and participated in several early Marshall Court decisions. He participated in Stuart v. Laird (1803), which addressed the constitutionality of the Judiciary Act of 1802. Moore's health deteriorated significantly during his years on the Court. He resigned on January 26, 1804, returning to North Carolina. He died on October 15, 1810, in Bladen County at fifty-five years of age. Moore's judicial legacy is limited by the brevity of his service, but his career illustrates the importance of state judicial experience in the early federal judiciary. His greater historical importance, however, rests upon his Revolutionary and North Carolina legal career. Constitutional approach: Original/structural constitutionalist. The surviving record is too small to attribute an elaborate judicial philosophy to Moore, but nothing suggests a progressive or living-constitutional approach. Key decisions Case Subject Moore's participation Bas v. Tingy (1800) Maritime Law Participated/Wrote an Opinion Stuart v. Laird (1803) Judiciary Act of 1802 / judicial power Participated Little v. Barreme (1804) Executive power / maritime seizure Participated Justice

As Chief of Quality you are tasked with testing all operations, services, and products and giving a report based on market data. You will figure out whether or not we are of a higher quality than our competitors in every aspect of our organization including the services and products we provide, the management of the org, our clientele relations and support, etc. < Back Chief of Quality Apply Now Job Type Volunteer About the Role As Chief of Quality you are tasked with testing all operations, services, and products and giving a report based on market data. You will figure out whether or not we are of a higher quality than our competitors in every aspect of our organization including the services and products we provide, the management of the org, our clientele relations and support, etc. Requirements Have prior experience in a relevant position About the Company Amending America is an educational support services 501(c)(3) that specializes in American History, Civics, and Constitutional Law, and provides a variety of different resources for people to learn from including online courses, research projects, videos, and an extensive library of primary source documents. Apply Now

< Back Alyssa Bailey Volunteer My name is Alyssa Bailey and I am a Proctor for Amending America LLC. I have pursued two degrees in history with a focus in Historic Preservation during my Masters at Roger Williams University. My academic journey instilled a strong foundation in analyzing the past through the development of community, actual city growth, and an overall understanding of how the United States formed into the nation it is today. Through my academic journey, I have learned valuable lessons in adaptability, willingness to learn, and determination. They emphasize the importance of how to face any challenge with an open mind, which continues to guide their approach to understanding how to better preserve history to enlighten the future. They are passionate about keeping up to date with historic preservation news reflecting their commitment to evolve with standards and improve personal knowledge. Looking ahead, I am focused on learning more about historic preservation practices, aiming to work towards a better future by understanding the past.

< Back Nour Chbany Chief Marketer Nour Chbany is the chief marketer; she is Majoring in finance and loves exploring new countries and new cultures. “I am proud to contribute to Tarpeia and cannot wait to see this community thrive and for us to grow and fulfill our purpose of helping teachers teach and students study American history.”

Adlai Stevenson Adlai Ewing Stevenson I was an Illinois lawyer and Democratic politician who served in Congress, became assistant postmaster general, and served as the twenty-third vice president. He was the second vice president to serve under Grover Cleveland, because Cleveland's two presidencies were nonconsecutive. Stevenson later became the Democratic vice-presidential nominee again in 1900. Stevenson was born on October 23, 1835, near Christian County, Kentucky. His family moved to Illinois during his childhood, and he attended Centre College in Kentucky. He studied law and was admitted to the Illinois bar in 1858. He subsequently established a legal practice in Bloomington, Illinois, where he became active in Democratic politics. Stevenson was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1874 and served from 1875 to 1877. He returned to the House in 1879 and served until 1881. After Grover Cleveland became president in 1885, Cleveland appointed Stevenson first assistant postmaster general. In that position, Stevenson became responsible for removing thousands of Republican-appointed postmasters, making him an important participant in the Democratic administration's patronage system. Stevenson returned to Congress in 1889 and served until 1893. The Democrats nominated him for vice president alongside Grover Cleveland in 1892. They defeated the Republican ticket of Benjamin Harrison and Whitelaw Reid, returning Cleveland to the White House for a second, nonconsecutive term. Stevenson therefore became vice president on March 4, 1893. As vice president, Stevenson presided over the Senate during a period dominated by the economic crisis that began with the Panic of 1893 and the debate over monetary policy, particularly the use of silver. He generally supported the Democratic administration's position on monetary policy. After Cleveland's second term ended in 1897, Stevenson again became the Democratic vice-presidential nominee in 1900, this time running alongside William Jennings Bryan. The ticket lost to William McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt. Stevenson remained active in Democratic politics after leaving the vice presidency. He was considered for several national nominations and continued speaking and campaigning for Democratic candidates. His grandson, Adlai Stevenson II, later became governor of Illinois and the Democratic presidential nominee in 1952 and 1956. Adlai Stevenson I died in Chicago on June 14, 1914. Stevenson's legacy includes his role in the Democratic politics of the late nineteenth century and the development of the vice presidency as a more visible political office. He is also notable as the first vice president whose grandson later became a major national presidential candidate. His career connects the Democratic Party of the Gilded Age with the progressive-era Democratic politics represented by William Jennings Bryan. Vice President, Representative

John McLean McLean's career spanned the early republic, the Jacksonian era, the rise of the Republican Party, and the beginning of the Civil War. Before joining the Supreme Court he had served in Congress and as Postmaster General under two presidents. On the Court he frequently occupied an independent position and eventually became one of the strongest judicial opponents of the constitutional arguments supporting slavery. McLean was born on March 11, 1785, in New Jersey. His family moved westward to Ohio when he was young, and he grew up during the rapid development of the Northwest Territory. He studied law and established a practice in Lebanon, Ohio. McLean entered politics as a Democratic-Republican and was elected to Congress in 1812. He later became a judge of the Ohio Supreme Court. President James Monroe appointed him Postmaster General in 1823, and McLean continued in that office under President John Quincy Adams. Andrew Jackson later nominated him to the Supreme Court in 1829. McLean served during the entire Taney Court and participated in many of the great constitutional controversies preceding the Civil War. In Charles River Bridge v. Warren Bridge (1837), he joined the Court's rejection of a broad implied monopoly. In Prigg v. Pennsylvania (1842), he joined the Court's recognition of federal authority over fugitive slaves while expressing opposition to aspects of the slavery regime. His most famous judicial work came in Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857), where he dissented from Chief Justice Taney's opinion and argued that free Black Americans could be citizens of the United States and that Congress possessed authority to prohibit slavery in the territories. McLean remained on the Court until his death and was repeatedly discussed as a potential presidential candidate. He was a prominent anti-slavery Whig and later Republican, although he never secured his party's presidential nomination. He died in Cincinnati on April 4, 1861, only weeks before the outbreak of the Civil War. McLean's greatest legacy lies in his dissent in Dred Scott . His opinion offered a direct constitutional rejection of the proposition that Black Americans could categorically be excluded from American citizenship. Although the Court's majority rejected his position, his dissent became part of the constitutional arguments that ultimately informed the Fourteenth Amendment. Constitutional approach: Originalist, but with an anti-slavery constitutional interpretation. McLean should not be labeled a living constitutionalist. His Dred Scott dissent rested heavily on historical evidence concerning citizenship at the founding and on the constitutional text rather than on an evolving-constitution theory. Key decisions Case Subject McLean's role Charles River Bridge v. Warren Bridge (1837) Contract Clause Participated Prigg v. Pennsylvania (1842) Fugitive Slave Clause Participated Ableman v. Booth (1859) Federal supremacy / Fugitive Slave Act Opinion of the Court Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857) Citizenship / slavery / territorial power Dissent Separate opinions: McLean became one of the Court's most prominent dissenters, culminating in his powerful dissent in Dred Scott . Justice