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As Chief of Projects you are tasked with overseeing, starting, finishing, or publishing research projects such as those seen on the projects page. These research projects are designed to be an additional source of information for students, teachers, and researchers beyond that of the curriculum. < Back Chief of Projects Apply Now Job Type Volunteer About the Role As Chief of Projects you are tasked with overseeing, starting, finishing, or publishing research projects such as those seen on the projects page. These research projects are designed to be an additional source of information for students, teachers, and researchers beyond that of the curriculum. Requirements Prior relevant experience About the Company Amending America is an educational support services 501(c)(3) that specializes in American History, Civics, and Constitutional Law, and provides a variety of different resources for people to learn from including online courses, research projects, videos, and an extensive library of primary source documents. Apply Now

Warren G. Harding Warren Gamaliel Harding was the 29th president of the United States, serving from 1921 until his death in 1923. A Republican from Ohio, Harding rose from a small-town newspaper publisher to one of the most prominent political figures of the Progressive Era. His presidency sought a return to what he called “normalcy” after the upheaval of World War I, emphasizing economic stability, limited government, and a less interventionist approach to international affairs. Although his administration was later tarnished by scandals involving members of his cabinet, Harding himself remains a complicated figure whose short presidency helped mark the transition from the reform-minded Progressive Era to the more conservative politics of the 1920s. Harding was born on November 2, 1865, near Blooming Grove, Ohio, the first of eight children of George Tryon Harding and Phoebe Elizabeth Dickerson Harding. His father was a physician and later became involved in local politics, while his mother was a midwife. Harding attended Ohio Central College in Iberia, where he developed an interest in public speaking, journalism, and music. After graduating in 1882, he worked at several jobs before purchasing the struggling Marion Star newspaper in 1884. Harding transformed the paper into a successful local publication, establishing himself as a respected member of the Marion community. His newspaper career also introduced him to politics and provided the platform from which he would eventually launch his political career. Harding entered Republican politics in Ohio during the 1890s and quickly developed a reputation as an effective speaker and conciliatory politician. He served in the Ohio State Senate from 1899 to 1903 and later became lieutenant governor of Ohio from 1904 to 1906. Although he was not considered one of the state's most forceful political leaders, his ability to work with competing factions made him a useful Republican figure. Harding eventually entered national politics and was elected to the United States Senate in 1914, where he served until 1921. During World War I, he supported American participation in the war but opposed the Treaty of Versailles in its existing form and the League of Nations as proposed by President Woodrow Wilson. At the 1920 Republican National Convention, Harding emerged as a compromise candidate after party leaders became deadlocked, and he won the presidency alongside Vice President Calvin Coolidge in a landslide over Democrat James M. Cox. Harding entered the presidency promising a “return to normalcy” after the war, the Wilson years, and the social upheavals of the Progressive Era. His administration reduced wartime taxes and spending, supported business growth, raised protective tariffs, and created policies intended to stabilize the postwar economy. Harding also signed the Budget and Accounting Act of 1921, which established a more centralized federal budget process, and appointed William Howard Taft as chief justice of the Supreme Court. In foreign affairs, his administration negotiated the Washington Naval Conference of 1921–1922, which produced agreements limiting naval armaments and temporarily easing tensions among the major powers. Harding also signed the Fordney-McCumber Tariff and supported immigration restrictions. Yet his administration became increasingly associated with corruption, particularly the Teapot Dome scandal and misconduct by officials such as Secretary of the Interior Albert B. Fall. Harding did not live long enough to see the full extent of these scandals revealed, but the actions of some of his appointees would severely damage his historical reputation. In 1923, Harding embarked on a lengthy national tour known as the “Voyage of Understanding,” intended to explain his policies and restore public confidence in his administration. He traveled westward across the United States and became the first president to visit Alaska while in office. During the journey, Harding began experiencing serious health problems. He traveled to San Francisco, where he became increasingly ill and was confined to the Palace Hotel. Before he could return to Washington, Harding died suddenly on August 2, 1923, at the age of 57. His death was initially attributed to a heart attack or stroke, although rumors of poisoning and other theories circulated afterward. His wife, Florence Harding, returned his body to Washington, where he lay in state before being transported to Ohio. Harding's legacy has been shaped by the contrast between his personal popularity and the scandals that emerged from his administration. He is often ranked among the weaker American presidents because of the corruption associated with several members of his cabinet, although historians increasingly distinguish Harding's own record from the misconduct of his subordinates. His administration achieved notable accomplishments in fiscal administration, naval arms limitation, and economic policy, while his death prevented him from responding to or correcting many of the problems within his administration. Harding's presidency ultimately became a symbol of the dangers of political patronage and appointing personal associates to positions of great authority. Nevertheless, his election represented an important turning point: after the expansive reformism and internationalism of the Wilson years, Harding's victory reflected a broad desire among Americans for stability, economic growth, and a return to a less activist style of government. President, Senator

World Wars Era Chapter 20: World War II 1941 ― 1945 Arsenal of Democracy 1941-1942 Allies Strike Back 1942-1944 Final Victory 1944-1945 Great Depression 1929 ― 1941 Previous Chapter Containment 1945 ― 1961 Next Chapter World Wars Era Sponsors In Grateful Recognition "Patrons of the Past" (Sponsoring all nine Eras) Doug Shubert Adam Shubert Cathy Gillespie Sponsor an Era Documents Filter by Type Filter by Author Reset Filter by Era Master Index Read Document 04/17/1492 The formal agreement between Christopher Columbus and the Catholic Monarchs, outlining the terms of his voyage, including titles, governance, and a share of profits from any lands discovered. It provides a primary record of how Spain officially authorized and incentivized overseas exploration, establishing Columbus’s authority and the framework for his expeditions. Ferdinand of Aragon Capitulations of Santa Fe Read Document 04/30/1492 Issued by Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, the charter grants Christopher Columbus hereditary titles of Admiral of the Ocean Sea, Viceroy, and Governor over discovered lands, along with a share of profits. It establishes a legal and economic framework for exploration, showing how the Spanish Crown incentivized expansion through private enterprise while maintaining authority over commerce, territory, and governance. Ferdinand of Aragon Privileges Granted to Columbus Read Document 08/03/1492 Columbus sailed west under the Spanish Crown seeking a route to Asia, making landfall in the Bahamas on 12 October 1492 and initiating sustained contact between Europe and the Americas. He explored Cuba and Hispaniola and founded the short-lived La Navidad. His 1492–1493 journal, the earliest detailed European account of the Caribbean, survives only through the abstracted transcription of Bartolomé de las Casas. Christopher Columbus Columbus' Diary of His First Voyage Read Document 02/15/1493 Columbus’s letter announcing the results of his first voyage was published across Europe, describing the islands he encountered, their peoples, and the vast potential for wealth and Christian expansion. Framing the discovery as a triumph for Spain, the letter promised new lands rich in resources and ripe for conversion, bolstering Spanish prestige and competition with rival European powers. Christopher Columbus Columbus' Letter of His First Voyage Read Document 05/04/1493 Issued in 1493, Pope Alexander VI grants Spain rights to lands “discovered” west of a line of longitude while recognizing prior Portuguese claims to lands east of it. Written in Latin, this bull established the principle that non-Christian lands could be claimed by European powers, forming the basis for future colonization of the Americas. Pope Alexander VI Inter caetera Read Document 06/07/1494 An agreement between Spain and Portugal, mediated by the Pope, that divided newly discovered lands outside Europe along a meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands. This treaty granted Spain rights to most of the Americas while Portugal secured control over Africa, Asia, and later Brazil, shaping the course of global empire. Pope Alexander VI Treaty of Tordesillas Read Document 03/05/1496 Venetian explorer John Cabot, sailing under commission from England’s Henry VII, made landfall on the coast of North America, likely Newfoundland, on June 24, becoming the first known European since the Norse to reach the mainland. His voyage laid the foundation for England’s territorial claims in the New World, shaping the future of English colonization. Henry VII John Cabot's First Patent Read Document 05/10/1497 Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine navigator working for Spain, claimed to have sailed on a 1497–1498 voyage along the coast of the New World, possibly reaching Central America, though the authenticity of this voyage remains disputed by historians. Amerigo Vespucci Amerigo Vespucci First Voyage Read Document 07/22/1497 The Spanish Crown issued royal instructions authorizing Christopher Columbus to promote permanent settlement on Hispaniola by distributing land and requiring colonists to cultivate crops and develop the island’s resources. This decree marked an early shift from exploration toward organized colonization and agricultural exploitation in Spain’s emerging American empire. Ferdinand of Aragon Decree to Cultivate American Colonies Read Document 03/05/1498 Second letters patent issued by Henry VII granting John Cabot authority to outfit up to six ships and return to newly discovered lands (February 3, 1498), expanding royal support for exploration while relying on private financing, after which Cabot departed later that year on a voyage whose date, route, and fate remain unknown, with his pension ending in 1499 suggesting he likely died during or shortly after the expedition. Henry VII John Cabot's Second Patent Read Document 1503 Mundus Novus is a letter, attributed to Amerigo Vespucci, describing his voyages to the newly encountered lands across the Atlantic. Written in Latin and first printed in 1503, it introduced European readers to the idea that these lands were not Asia, but a “New World” previously unknown to Europeans. The letter emphasizes the vast size, natural wealth, and distinct peoples of these territories, fueling curiosity and prompting further exploration. Amerigo Vespucci Mundus Novus Read Document 12/27/1512 Promulgated by King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Juana of Castile in Burgos, Spain; the first comprehensive legal code regulating Spanish conduct, labor obligations, living conditions, and religious instruction of Indigenous peoples in the Americas, initially on Hispaniola and later applied to Puerto Rico and Jamaica, establishing the Crown’s framework for colonial governance and the treatment of native populations. Ferdinand of Aragon The Laws of Burgos 1 2 3 ... 135 1 ... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 ... 135 Biographies Christopher Columbus (1451–1506) was a Genoese navigator who sailed under the Spanish Crown and completed four transatlantic voyages beginning in 1492. He is best known for making sustained European contact with the Americas while searching for a western sea route to Asia. His expeditions initiated the Columbian Exchange and Spanish colonization of the Caribbean, though his governance and treatment of Indigenous peoples remain deeply controversial. View Bio Christopher Columbus John Rolfe (c. 1585–1622) was an English colonist who became one of the most important figures in the early development of Virginia. He helped establish Virginia’s tobacco industry and married Pocahontas in 1614, contributing to a period of improved relations between the English and the Powhatan Confederacy. His legacy is closely tied to the economic growth of Jamestown, the colonization of Virginia, and the complex history of English-Indigenous relations in early America. View Bio John Rolfe John Winthrop (1588–1649) was an English Puritan leader who helped establish the Massachusetts Bay Colony and served as its governor for much of its early history. In 1630, he led a large group of Puritan settlers to New England as part of the Great Migration, seeking to establish a religious community based on Puritan principles. As governor, Winthrop shaped the colony's government and society, leaving a lasting legacy as one of the most influential leaders in early New England. View Bio John Winthrop Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) rose from humble beginnings as a runaway printer’s apprentice to become a leading writer, scientist, diplomat, and statesman whose influence shaped every stage of America’s founding. Through intellect, wit, and practical wisdom, he helped secure independence, unite the colonies, and design a constitutional republic that could endure. View Bio Benjamin Franklin Roger Sherman (1721–1793) was a Connecticut statesman and lawyer who played a central role in America’s founding and is the only person to sign all four key founding documents: the Continental Association, the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, and the U.S. Constitution. A delegate to both Continental Congresses and the Constitutional Convention, he later served in the first U.S. House of Representatives and Senate, shaping the early structure of the federal government. View Bio Roger Sherman Samuel Adams (1722–1803) was an American revolutionary, Founding Father, and political leader who became one of the most influential organizers of resistance to British rule. He helped mobilize opposition to British taxation, supported American independence, signed the Declaration of Independence, and later served as governor of Massachusetts. He opposed the ratification of the U.S. Constitution. View Bio Samuel Adams Reset Filter by Era Filter by Office 1 2 3 ... 18 1 ... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 ... 18 Search by Name

As Chief Financier you will manage and report cash flows, banking information, file annual taxes on the local, state, and federal levels, oversee grants, and in the future will manage an endowment, scholarship program, and a donor advised fund. < Back Chief Financier Apply Now Job Type Volunteer About the Role As Chief Financier you will manage and report cash flows, banking information, file annual taxes on the local, state, and federal levels, oversee grants, and in the future will manage an endowment, scholarship program, and a donor advised fund. Requirements Have a degree in finance Have several years of relavent work experience Have a letter of recommendation from your previous employer regarding a financial position About the Company Amending America is an educational support services 501(c)(3) that specializes in American History, Civics, and Constitutional Law, and provides a variety of different resources for people to learn from including online courses, research projects, videos, and an extensive library of primary source documents. Apply Now

On This Day is a calendar showing which days had a historical event taken place on. On This Day

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Synopsis of the 1876 Election Republicans controlled the Senate while Democrats controlled the House of Representatives. The Senate was the chamber in which the electoral votes would be opened and counted, but in several states multiple and contradictory electoral certificates were submitted to Congress. Why did this happen? In three Southern states — South Carolina, Florida, and Louisiana — both parties claimed victory in the state elections of 1876. Republican state governments, recognized by the existing state authorities and canvassing boards, certified electors pledged to Rutherford B. Hayes. Democratic officials and political organizations in those same states challenged those certifications and transmitted rival electoral returns pledged to Samuel J. Tilden. These disputes did not arise from provisional governments created by the Reconstruction Acts, which had ended years earlier with the readmission of the former Confederate states to congressional representation. Instead, they arose from contested elections, rival state authorities claiming legitimacy, allegations of fraud and intimidation by both parties, and uncertainty over which electoral certificates Congress was constitutionally obligated to count. The disputed returns were then sent to Congress, where they would be opened by the President of the Senate, Thomas W. Ferry, in the presence of both houses assembled in joint session. Notes from the Senate on when each ballot was received and how. Republicans claimed that Ferry had the right to decide which votes to count, but Democrats insisted that the joint session with its Democratic majority must decide. The Senate could not agree which electoral certificates represented the lawful votes of the states. Republicans generally favored the certificates issued by the existing state governments and canvassing authorities, while Democrats favored the rival certificates submitted by Democratic claimants in those states. The Republicans didn’t trust the Democrats' ballots, not just because they were the opposition party but because of many instances of voter intimidation in those states against Republican voters, primarily Black voters. Under the Twelfth Amendment, a contingent election occurs if no candidate receives a majority of appointed electors, then the election is decided by the House of Representatives with each state being counted as one vote. Republicans did not want the election to be decided in the Democrat controlled House so they decided to come up with an Electoral Commission to resolve the disputed ballots. This is the only “compromise” that happened, having the Electoral Commission in the first place. This bipartisan commission would have 5 members from the House, 3 Democrats and 2 Republicans, 5 members from the Senate, 3 Republicans and 2 Democrats, and five members from the Supreme court, 2 Democrats, 2 Republicans, and 1 independent. This means that the commission was 50/50 with Democrats and Republicans with one independent Justice to break the tie. This independent Justice is named David Davis, someone who has worked closely with both parties, in fact he was the head organizer of the Lincoln campaign of 1860. There were only 2 Democrat Justices and the rest were Republicans with one independent, that fact becomes very important. So David Davis being the only independent to break the tie in the Electoral Commission had the entire election to himself. This was a bad look for him, he was an independent and siding with either party will make him look like he was bought out. But he was given the excuse of the century to recuse himself from the commission. The same day the Electoral Commission Act was approved by the Senate the Democratic controlled state legislature of Illinois voted to elect David Davis as a Senator. At this time, before the 17th Amendment, state legislatures elected their Senators in congress. "Now, sir, the friends of this measure having brought the Supreme Court in here, I shall not hesitate to talk about it. The man fixed upon, we have been told by our friends and told by our enemies, was Judge Davis, of Illinois. Our democratic friends wanted a fair count. They are the fairest set of men that God ever made or suffered to grow up, if God did not make them. [Laughter.] And they wanted to have not only a fair but au impartial count. But in order t.bat the umpire might be perfectly fair and impartial, in order that every bias should be removed .from the mind of the umpire, au order is forwarded from Gramercy Park to the democrats of Illinois that they should elect Judge Davis United States Senator. Not that there is any wrong in it; not the least in the world. It is done Aim ply for the purpose of making Judge Davis unbiased. [Laughter.] And they want simple republicans to throw the power of the country into the hands of this judge that they have taken such pains to render unbiased." - Mr. Townshend of New York in the House during the debate on the Electoral Commission Act on January 26, 1877. "No gentleman should give this measure his support without understanding fully the effect of what he is doing. It will constitute a commission composed of fifteen individuals. Seven of these will consist of one political party and eight of the other party. The odd-numbered man must be selected from the four supreme judges not designated in the bill. Of these four, three are pronounced republicans, namely, Bradley, Hunt, and Swayne, and Mr. David Davis, who has little or no politics. Mr. Davis, having just been elected to the United States Senate, would not be offered a place in the commission and would not accept it if he were. The choice, then, must tall upon a republican. A republican then will decide every controverted question coming before the commission. Our democratic friends have bitterly opposed the idea of putting this power in the hands of Mr. FERRY, President of the Senate, simply because he is a republican, and yet they now propose to vest this same power in the hands of no less a partisan than he. What matters it whether Mr. FERRY or Mr. Bradley or Hunt or Swayne count the vote Y You are jeopardizing the expressed will of the people in the hands of the one as well as the other. I cannot and never shall consent to trust any one man with such tremendous power. I would not even if he were of my own party." - Mr. Carr during the House debate on the Electoral Commission Act on January 26, 1877. The next day the House approved of the Electoral Commission Act believing that they have duped the Republicans (a majority of Republicans in the House voting against the bill despite the majority of Republicans in the Senate voting for it), however there was a twist in the story, David Davis recused himself from participating in the Electoral Commission. So the commission was officially established by congress to decide the election and immediately the only independent person on the commission was elected to the Senate by the Democrats and then he recused himself, resulting in Justice Bradley becoming the fifteenth member of the commission and giving Republicans an 8-7 majority. The Illinois legislature's election of Davis ultimately had the opposite political effect from what many Democrats had expected. The Supreme Court replaced David Davis with a Republican Justice since the only two Democrat Justices were already on the commission. This gave the Republicans the deciding vote. The commission would meet for a month and every vote they had all Republicans voted for Hayes and all Democrats voted for Tilden. The Democrats never voted for Hayes all the way till Hayes' inauguration. The Democrats in the House tried to dismiss the decision of the Electoral Commission. The Electoral Commission had to decide for each of the four states separately, there was one ballot from Oregon that was challenged, and each of these decisions would be certified by both Houses in Congress, however, both Houses would need to reject a decision to dismiss it completely. If one House supported the decision then the decision would be counted. The House of Representatives rejected every decision that the Electoral Commission made regarding the Electoral vote of the four states with multiple ballots; but since the Senate approved the decisions of the Electoral Commission, which all counted Hayes as the winner by a vote of 8-7, and only one House is needed for approval, Hayes won all four states. The Democrats in the House did not stop there when challenging the electoral count; they claimed that more states, which voted for Hayes, had false ballots including Michigan, Nevada, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont, and lastly Wisconsin. The Senate did not object to the count of these states since there was only one ballot from these states; since both Houses are needed to object to a ballot count, these counts went to Hayes. The delay tactic of the Democrats pushed Wisconsin's count to 4:00 AM on March 2, 1877, which is the time that Hayes was declared the winner. The congressional proceedings themselves do not reveal any point at which Democratic members agreed to support Hayes's election or withdrew their objections to his electoral votes.. No compromise or "corrupt bargain" was needed for the Republicans to win. There is no space for the Democrats to switch their vote for Hayes cause they rejected the count all the way to the last second. I left Tilden and Hayes out of this because they literally did nothing during this time except comment occasionally. Especially Tilden who stayed home the entire time and refused to speak with anyone. Hayes actually believed that he had lost the election. They had nothing to do with the outcome of the election. There is no primary document nor even an eye witness to any “corrupt bargain.” Hayes would end Republican enforcement of the Enforcement Acts if he was elected anyway. Hayes had already expressed support for what he termed "home rule" in the South during the campaign, making the eventual withdrawal of federal troops from South Carolina and Louisiana less surprising than later narratives sometimes suggest. What remained of Reconstruction was already ending; the end started with Grant’s second term, as more former Confederates were enfranchised they replaced their republican controlled state legislatures and their Representatives and Senators in Congress with Democrats. By 1877 Reconstruction as a congressional program had largely run its course, and most former Confederate states had long since returned to Democratic control. Federal troops remained in parts of South Carolina and Louisiana in support of Republican state governments facing Democratic challenges, but these states were no longer provisional governments operating under the Reconstruction Acts but instead military assignments under the Enforcement Acts to protect state legislatures, polling places, and courts from domestic terrorist actions like from the White League, Red Shirts, and the KKK. Notably, the principal disputes involved the remaining Southern states where Republican governments still depended heavily upon federal support and where political violence and contested elections had become commonplace. There was no bargain, the Republicans had already given up on Reconstruction due to the failures and corruption of the Grant presidency. Many staunch Republicans began to quiet their voices on the issue of civil rights even though the Republican Party platform of 1876 declared that securing civil rights was their main mission. Hayes said during his campaign that he would return "home rule" to the South but that he was also a defender of Black Civil Rights. Justice David Davis resigned as Justice of the Supreme Court and accepted his Senatorial seat as the only Independent in the Senate on the same day as Hayes' inauguration. Although his recusal ultimately resulted in Justice Bradley becoming the deciding member of the commission, the Democrats, especially in Illinois, apparently loved him and respected him even voting to make him President pro tempore in the Senate instead of voting for a Democrat. It was a weird and depressing end to a movement that gripped the nation for 12 years since the Death of Lincoln. Civil rights would be under attack after the election of Garfield and Arthur when the supreme court in 1883, without David Davis, ruled that the civil rights act of 1875 was unconstitutional, ending the first civil rights movement for Black Americans. Sources: 1. Journal of Congress. From Election Day to March 5 https://www.congress.gov/bound-congressional-record/1877/02/26/house-section 2. Proceedings of the Electoral Commission https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc2.ark:/13960/t4mk65g3d&seq=7

Gabriel Duvall Duvall represented the generation that moved from Revolutionary state politics into the expanding federal government. His career included service in the Maryland legislature, the U.S. House of Representatives, and the Maryland Court of Appeals before Madison appointed him to the Supreme Court. Although his judicial writings were limited, his lengthy service provided continuity during some of the Court's most consequential constitutional decisions. Duvall was born on December 6, 1752, in Prince George's County, Maryland. His family was of French Huguenot ancestry and had established itself in Maryland generations earlier. Duvall studied law and entered practice before the American Revolution. Duvall served in the Maryland legislature and became active in the state's revolutionary government. He later represented Maryland in the U.S. House of Representatives, where he served from 1794 to 1796. He subsequently served as comptroller of the U.S. Treasury and on Maryland's highest court. His administrative and judicial experience made him a natural candidate for Madison's Supreme Court. Madison nominated Duvall in 1811 to replace Samuel Chase. Duvall joined the Marshall Court during its expansion into questions of federal constitutional authority. He participated in Fletcher v. Peck , McCulloch v. Maryland , Dartmouth College v. Woodward , Cohens v. Virginia , and Gibbons v. Ogden . He generally joined Marshall's opinions and seldom issued separate opinions. Duvall retired from the Supreme Court on January 12, 1835, after nearly twenty-four years of service. He returned to Maryland and lived there for another nine years. He died on March 6, 1844, at the age of ninety-one. Duvall's importance comes principally from his longevity and participation in the Marshall Court. He helped maintain a stable majority during the Court's development of federal constitutional doctrine. His lack of extensive separate opinions, however, makes him less useful for reconstructing a distinctive individual judicial philosophy. Constitutional approach: Original/structural Federalist constitutionalist. Duvall consistently supported the dominant Marshall Court approach to federal constitutional authority. Key decisions Case Subject Duvall's participation Fletcher v. Peck (1810/1811) Contract Clause Participated McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) Federal power Participated Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819) Contract Clause Participated Cohens v. Virginia (1821) Federal judicial power Participated Gibbons v. Ogden (1824) Commerce Clause Participated Separate opinions: Duvall was not a significant separate-opinion writer. Justice, Representative

Nelson Rockefeller Nelson Aldrich Rockefeller was an American businessman, public official, philanthropist, and Republican politician who served as the 41st vice president of the United States. A member of the wealthy Rockefeller family, he spent much of his career combining business and public service, particularly in international affairs and later in New York State politics. He served four terms as governor of New York before Gerald Ford selected him to become vice president after the resignation of Spiro Agnew and Ford's accession to the presidency. Rockefeller was born into one of America's most prominent families. His father, John D. Rockefeller Jr., was a major philanthropist and businessman, while his mother, Abby Aldrich Rockefeller, was a prominent patron of the arts and a member of the Aldrich family. Nelson attended Lincoln School in New York City and Dartmouth College, graduating in 1930. His family's wealth gave him opportunities in business and public affairs, but he developed an early interest in government and international relations. Rockefeller entered public service during the administration of Franklin D. Roosevelt. In 1940 he became Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs, where he worked to strengthen relations between the United States and Latin American nations during the Second World War. He later served as Assistant Secretary of State for American Republic Affairs. Under President Dwight D. Eisenhower, Rockefeller served as Under Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare and later as a special assistant to the president for foreign affairs. Rockefeller's principal political career came in New York. He was elected governor in 1958 and took office in January 1959, eventually winning reelection three times and serving until the end of 1973. He became a nationally prominent Republican and sought the Republican presidential nomination in 1960, 1964, and 1968, but did not become the party's nominee. After Gerald Ford became president in 1974, Ford nominated Rockefeller for vice president under the newly established procedures of the Twenty-Fifth Amendment. Congress confirmed him, and Rockefeller took the oath of office on December 19, 1974. As vice president, he played a significant role in domestic policy and chaired the commission that investigated allegations concerning CIA domestic activities. Rockefeller left the vice presidency in January 1977 when Jimmy Carter succeeded Ford as president. He returned to private life, continuing his interests in art, philanthropy, and public affairs. He died suddenly of a heart attack in New York City on January 26, 1979, at the age of seventy. Rockefeller's legacy rests particularly on his long governorship of New York, his influence within the moderate wing of the Republican Party, his support for government programs and the arts, and his role in the development of the modern vice presidency. His appointment also demonstrated the Twenty-Fifth Amendment's new mechanism for filling a vice-presidential vacancy. Vice President, Governor

Acerca de Bills, Resolutions, & Debates How to Write Bills and Resolutions Below is a guide to help you write bills and resolutions along with some tips on meetings/debate structure. I do add my own take on writing bills and resolutions; what I add is having two versions of the same bill, a contemporary and original version. The original version is how most people and institutions write bills/resolutions, where you have the original text with amendments in a separate section. The Contemporary version, called "contemporary status," is different in that it includes amendments within the bill itself. What this solves is the confusion of original text with the legitimate changes made afterwards. An example would be someone reading the Constitution's original text, unless there are footnotes, people won't know what parts are still valid and what parts have been amended. Including the amendments and removing anything that was repealed does change the Constitution as someone reads it and so I use both versions or "statuses." Bills: Contemporary Status AAB- “Committee Number”- “Bill Number”- (Year): In the Amending Congress Date: Authors: Sponsors: Title: Preamble: In the WHEREAS clauses, describe individual reasons why this bill should pass. End the WHEREAS clauses with “, and” so that it runs as one long sentence until the last WHEREAS clause. Therefore: Section #: Section #: Section # *Any amendments added will be within the contemporary version in the sections they belong. If an amendment adds to the original status of the bill then add it as a whereas clause or as a section under therefore. If an amendment repeals a section or whereas clause then just remove the appropriate parts. Any new authors or sponsors will be added in the right section of the contemporary status along with any changes to the Title. The date changes to the most recent update of the bill. Original Status AAB- “Committee Number”- “Bill Number”- ( Year): In the Amending Congress Date: Authors: Sponsors: Title: Preamble: In the WHEREAS clauses, describe individual reasons why this bill should pass. End the WHEREAS clauses with “, and” so that it runs as one long sentence until the last WHEREAS clause. Therefore: Section #: Section #: Section # Amendments: Repeal: Repeal section 2, clause 3, “(write clause 3);” Repeal section 2, “(write section 2)” Addition: Whereas or Section and any new authors or sponsors *The only parts of the original status bill that changes is the amendments section, the original names, dates, titles, and sections remain the same. Add dates to any changes in the amendments section along with footnotes. Resolutions: Contemporary Status AAR - “Committee Number”- “Resolution Number”- ( Year) : In the Amending Congress Date: Authors: Sponsors: Title: Preamble: In the WHEREAS clauses, describe individual reasons why this resolution should pass. End the WHEREAS clauses with “, and” so that it runs as one long sentence until the last WHEREAS clause. Goals: Section #: Section #: Section # *Any amendments added will be within the contemporary version in the sections they belong. If an amendment adds to the original status of the resolution then add it as a whereas clause or as a section under therefore. If an amendment repeals a section or whereas clause then just remove the appropriate parts. Any new authors or sponsors will be added in the right section of the contemporary status along with any changes to the Title. The date changes to the most recent update of the resolution. Original Status AAR - “Committee Number”- “Resolution Number”- ( Year) : In the Amending Congress Date: Authors: Sponsors: Title: Preamble: In the WHEREAS clauses, describe individual reasons why this resolution should pass. End the WHEREAS clauses with “, and” so that it runs as one long sentence until the last WHEREAS clause. Goals: Section #: Section #: Section # Amendments: Repeal: Repeal section 2, clause 3, “(write clause 3);” Repeal section 2, “(write section 2)” Addition: Whereas or Section and any new authors or sponsors *The only parts of the original status resolution that changes is the amendments section, the original names, dates, titles, and sections remain the same. Add dates to any changes in the amendments section. Roberts Rules Summary: A. Quorum: A quorum is the minimum number of members who must be present at a meeting for business to be legally transacted. An organization, in its established rules, may define its own quorum. In the absence of such a provision, the quorum is a majority of the entire membership. B. Obtaining the Floor: Before a member in an assembly can make a motion or speak in debate, he or she must obtain the floor; that is, the member must be recognized by the chair as having the exclusive right to be heard at that time. If two or more members rise to seek recognition at the same time, the member who rose and addressed the chair first after the floor was yielded is usually entitled to be recognized. A member cannot establish "prior claim" to the floor by rising before it has been yielded. C. Introducing Business (Making Motions): Business may be introduced by an individual member or by a committee. Business is always introduced in the form of a motion. D. Seconding a Motion: After a motion has been made, another member, without rising and obtaining the floor, may second the motion. A second merely implies that the seconder agrees that the motion should come before the assembly and not that he or she necessarily favors the motion. A motion made by a committee requires no second, since its introduction into the assembly has been approved by a majority of the committee. The purpose of a second is to prevent time from being consumed by the assembly having to dispose of a motion that only one person wants to see introduced. E. Placing a Motion Before the Assembly: After a motion has been made and seconded, the chair repeats the motion verbatim, thus placing it before the assembly for debate and action. During the brief interval between the making of a motion and the time when the chair places it before the assembly by restating it, the maker of a motion may modify or withdraw it simply by stating the intention to do so. After the motion has been restated by the chair, it is officially before the assembly and must be dealt with appropriately (e.g., adopted, rejected, postponed). F. Debate: Every member of the assembly has the right to speak on every debatable motion before it is finally acted upon; this right cannot be interfered with except by a motion to limit debate. All discussion must be confined to the immediately pending question and to whether or not it should be adopted. While debate is in progress, amendments or other secondary motions can be introduced and disposed of accordingly. In an organization that has no special rule relating to the length of speeches, a member can speak no longer than 10 minutes unless he or she obtains the consent of the assembly; such permission can be given by unanimous consent or by means of a motion to extend debate. Likewise, debate may be curtailed by a motion to limit debate. No member may speak twice on the same motion at the same meeting as long as any other member who has not spoken on the motion desires to do so. Unless the rules are suspended, a member who has spoken twice on a particular question on the same day has exhausted his or her right to debate that question for that day. During debate, no member can attack or question the motives of another member. The maker of a motion, although allowed to vote against it, is not allowed to speak against it. G. Amendments: As noted above, before a motion has been restated by the chair, the maker has the right to modify his or her motion or to withdraw it entirely. After it has been restated by the chair, however, a motion may be modified only by means of an amendment. There are six ways to amend a motion: a. Add words, phrases, or sentences at the end of a motion; b. Insert words, phrases, or sentences; c. Strike words, phrases, or sentences; d. Strike and insert words, phrases, or sentences; e. Strike and add words, phrases, or sentences; and f. Substitute whole paragraphs or an entire text. Only two amendments (primary and secondary) may be pending on a main motion at any time. Discussion of an amendment must relate only to the amendment, unless the whole motion is involved by substitution. An amendment must be germane to the question under consideration. H. Voting: Unless special rules apply, a majority decides. A majority is more than half of the votes cast by persons legally entitled to vote, excluding blank ballots or abstentions. Unless otherwise provided for, voting is by voice vote. If the presiding officer is a member of the assembly, he or she can vote as any other member does when the vote is by ballot. In other cases, the presiding officer, if a member of the assembly, can ( but is not obliged to ) vote whenever his or her vote will affect the result; i.e., he or she can vote either to break or to create a tie. A member has no right to explain his or her vote" during voting since that would be the same as debate at such a time. Any member may request a division of the assembly if there is uncertainty as to the true result of the vote. I. Announcing a Vote: In announcing the vote on a motion, the chair should: a. report on the voting itself, stating which side has prevailed; b. declare that the motion is adopted or lost; c. state the effect of the vote or order its execution. For a voice or rising vote in which no exact count is taken, the chair might say, for example, "The ayes have it, the motion carries, and the brochure will be published." For a vote in which an exact count is taken, the chair might say, "There are 14 in the affirmative and 15 in the negative. The negative has it and the motion is lost. No additional funds will be spent on publicity this semester." J. Adjournment: A motion to adjourn may be made by any member. It may be made during the consideration of other business, although it may not interrupt a speaker. A motion to adjourn is not in order when the assembly is engaged in voting or verifying a vote. If the motion to adjourn is voted down, it may be made again only after the disposition of some business. The motion to adjourn is out of order when the assembly is arranging for the time and place of the next meeting. When it appears that there is no further business to be brought before the assembly, the chair, instead of waiting for a motion, may simply adjourn the meeting. Forum

Samuel Adams Samuel Adams (1722–1803) was an American revolutionary, political writer, statesman, and Founding Father who became one of the most influential leaders of the Patriot movement in Boston. A second cousin of future President John Adams, Samuel Adams was a major opponent of British taxation and imperial authority and helped transform colonial resistance into an organized movement for independence. He served in the Massachusetts legislature, participated in the Continental Congress, signed the Declaration of Independence, helped shape the Massachusetts Constitution, and ultimately served as governor of Massachusetts. Adams was born in Boston on September 27, 1722, into a prosperous and politically active Puritan family. His father, Samuel Adams Sr., was a successful maltster and an influential participant in Boston politics, exposing his son from an early age to ideas about self-government and civic responsibility. Adams attended Boston Latin School before entering Harvard College in 1736, graduating in 1740 and receiving a master's degree in 1743. His master's thesis asked whether it was lawful to resist a supreme magistrate when the commonwealth could not otherwise be preserved, foreshadowing the political principles that would define his life. After Harvard, Adams struggled to establish himself financially, trying several occupations before finding his true calling in politics. He attempted business, worked in his father's malt house, and served as Boston's tax collector beginning in 1756, although he was not particularly successful as a businessman or administrator. Adams increasingly devoted himself to political writing and local government, becoming a clerk of the Boston Market and contributing to newspapers that defended colonial rights. In 1765, he entered the Massachusetts House of Representatives, where he became a leading opponent of the Stamp Act and later British taxation, using petitions, newspaper essays, town meetings, and committees of correspondence to mobilize public resistance. Adams became one of the most important organizers of the American Revolution in Boston. He opposed the Townshend Acts, helped organize resistance to British policies, and played a prominent role in the political events surrounding the Boston Massacre and the Boston Tea Party. He was a delegate to the Continental Congress beginning in 1774 and strongly supported independence as relations with Britain deteriorated into war. Adams signed the Declaration of Independence in 1776 and remained in Congress during the early years of the Revolution, later helping with the Articles of Confederation. He returned to Massachusetts in 1779 and, alongside John Adams and James Bowdoin, helped draft the Massachusetts Constitution, which was ratified in 1780. After the Revolution, Adams concentrated increasingly on Massachusetts politics. He served as president of the Massachusetts Senate and participated in the state's constitutional and political affairs before becoming lieutenant governor in 1789 under Governor John Hancock. When Hancock died in 1793, Adams assumed the governorship and was subsequently elected to three additional one-year terms, serving until 1797. As governor, he supported the principles of republican government and worked to maintain a balance between state and federal authority during the early years of the new American republic. After leaving office in 1797, he retired from public political life. Samuel Adams died in Boston on October 2, 1803, at the age of 81 and was buried at the Granary Burying Ground. His legacy rests less on holding high national office than on his ability to organize public opinion and turn political principles into sustained popular action. Adams helped establish the language and political networks through which Massachusetts resistance to British rule became part of a broader American independence movement, making him one of the central political organizers of the Revolution. Although later generations sometimes portrayed him primarily as a fiery propagandist, his contemporaries and later admirers also recognized him as a committed political thinker who placed liberty, self-government, and civic virtue at the center of his public life. Governor, Delegate to Continental Congress