Search this site

Theodore Roosevelt Theodore Roosevelt Jr. (October 27, 1858–January 6, 1919) was the 26th president of the United States and one of the most energetic and consequential figures of the Progressive Era. Born into a wealthy New York family, Roosevelt overcame severe childhood health problems to become a scholar, author, soldier, reformer, conservationist, and political leader. He became president in 1901 after the assassination of William McKinley and transformed the presidency into a more active force in American political and economic life. During his administration, Roosevelt pursued corporate regulation, consumer protection, conservation, and a more assertive foreign policy, while promoting what he called the “Square Deal” for Americans. After leaving office, he remained a powerful public figure, eventually running for president again in 1912 as the nominee of the Progressive Party. His life was characterized by an extraordinary combination of intellectual curiosity, physical vigor, political ambition, and a conviction that public service was a moral responsibility. Roosevelt was born in New York City on October 27, 1858, to Theodore Roosevelt Sr. and Martha Bulloch Roosevelt. His family was wealthy and socially prominent, and his father was a successful businessman and philanthropist who strongly encouraged his children to serve others. Theodore was an intelligent and exceptionally curious child, but he suffered from severe asthma and other physical ailments that frequently left him weak and confined indoors. Rather than accepting his physical limitations, he developed a rigorous program of exercise and outdoor activity to strengthen himself, later famously declaring that he had to “make his body.” He was educated primarily by private tutors and became an avid reader, naturalist, and amateur historian. Roosevelt entered Harvard College in 1876, where he studied a wide range of subjects and developed an interest in history, politics, and natural science. Shortly after graduating in 1880, he entered Columbia Law School but soon abandoned his legal studies to pursue politics, beginning a career that would eventually carry him from the New York State Assembly to the presidency. Roosevelt entered public life at the age of 23 when he was elected to the New York State Assembly in 1881. There he quickly gained a reputation as a reformer willing to challenge corruption and political machines, although his political career was interrupted by profound personal tragedy. In 1884, both his mother and his first wife, Alice Hathaway Lee, died within hours of each other, and Roosevelt withdrew from politics for a time, moving to the Dakota Territory to work as a rancher. The experience strengthened his love of the American West and the outdoors, while also providing material for several of his books. He eventually returned to New York and became increasingly influential in the Republican Party. Roosevelt served as a member of the U.S. Civil Service Commission, president of the New York City Board of Police Commissioners, and Assistant Secretary of the Navy. During the Spanish-American War in 1898, he resigned his Navy position and helped organize the Rough Riders, gaining national fame after fighting in Cuba. His military reputation helped propel him into the New York governorship in 1899, where he pursued progressive reforms and challenged the power of powerful Republican political bosses. Roosevelt became vice president under William McKinley in March 1901, but only six months later McKinley was assassinated by Leon Czolgosz, making Roosevelt president at the age of 42—the youngest person to hold the office up to that time. He quickly established a new model of presidential leadership, believing that the president could take any action not expressly prohibited by the Constitution. His domestic program, known as the Square Deal, sought to balance the interests of business, labor, and consumers. His administration aggressively pursued federal regulation of large corporations, most famously through the prosecution of the Northern Securities Company, while the Hepburn Act strengthened federal regulation of railroads. Roosevelt also championed consumer protection, helping inspire the Meat Inspection Act and Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906. He dramatically expanded federal conservation efforts, establishing national forests, wildlife refuges, and national monuments and protecting millions of acres of public land. In foreign affairs, Roosevelt pursued an assertive policy summarized by the phrase “speak softly and carry a big stick.” He helped negotiate an end to the Russo-Japanese War, for which he received the 1906 Nobel Peace Prize, and oversaw the construction of the Panama Canal. He won reelection in 1904 and left office in 1909, choosing his close political ally William Howard Taft as his successor. After leaving the presidency, Roosevelt traveled extensively and went on an expedition to Africa, where he collected specimens for the Smithsonian Institution. He later embarked on a dangerous expedition down an unexplored river in the Amazon Basin with his son Kermit, an experience that nearly cost him his life. Increasingly dissatisfied with President Taft, whom he believed had abandoned the progressive principles of his administration, Roosevelt returned to politics. He challenged Taft for the Republican presidential nomination in 1912, but Taft and the Republican establishment retained control of the party. Roosevelt and his supporters then created the Progressive Party, popularly known as the “Bull Moose Party,” and Roosevelt became its presidential nominee. He survived an assassination attempt during the campaign and famously continued his speech after being shot, remarking that “it takes more than that to kill a Bull Moose.” Although he lost the 1912 election to Democrat Woodrow Wilson, Roosevelt's Progressive campaign advocated an ambitious program of political, economic, and social reforms and helped shape the future of American progressivism. During World War I, Roosevelt became an outspoken advocate of American intervention and sharply criticized Wilson's neutrality, while four of Roosevelt's sons served in the war. Roosevelt's health declined after years of physical exertion, injuries, and tropical disease, although he remained active in public affairs until the end of his life. His youngest son, Quentin, was killed while serving as a pilot in France in July 1918, a devastating loss from which Roosevelt never fully recovered. On January 6, 1919, Roosevelt died in his sleep at his home at Sagamore Hill in Oyster Bay, New York, at the age of 60. Vice President Thomas R. Marshall famously remarked that Roosevelt “had to sleep,” reflecting the extraordinary energy with which he had approached public life. Roosevelt was buried at Youngs Memorial Cemetery in Oyster Bay. His legacy remains both celebrated and debated: he dramatically expanded the power and visibility of the modern presidency, strengthened federal regulation of corporations, helped establish the federal government as a protector of consumers and natural resources, and permanently expanded the nation's conservation system. At the same time, his nationalism, imperialism, and attitudes toward race and foreign peoples have drawn substantial criticism. Nevertheless, Theodore Roosevelt remains one of the most influential presidents in American history, and his conception of an energetic presidency helped define the role the office would play throughout the twentieth century.

Revolutionary Era Chapter 4: Join or Die 1763 ― 1775 Binding the Colonies 1763-1766 The Rights of Englishmen 1766-1773 The Cause of America 1773-1775 Intercolonial Wars 1675 ― 1763 Previous Chapter Independence 1775 ― 1784 Next Chapter Revolutionary Era Sponsors In Grateful Recognition "Patrons of the Past" (Sponsoring all nine Eras) Doug Shubert Adam Shubert Cathy Gillespie Sponsor an Era Documents Filter by Type Filter by Author Reset Filter by Era Master Index Read Document 04/17/1492 The formal agreement between Christopher Columbus and the Catholic Monarchs, outlining the terms of his voyage, including titles, governance, and a share of profits from any lands discovered. It provides a primary record of how Spain officially authorized and incentivized overseas exploration, establishing Columbus’s authority and the framework for his expeditions. Ferdinand of Aragon Capitulations of Santa Fe Read Document 04/30/1492 Issued by Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, the charter grants Christopher Columbus hereditary titles of Admiral of the Ocean Sea, Viceroy, and Governor over discovered lands, along with a share of profits. It establishes a legal and economic framework for exploration, showing how the Spanish Crown incentivized expansion through private enterprise while maintaining authority over commerce, territory, and governance. Ferdinand of Aragon Privileges Granted to Columbus Read Document 08/03/1492 Columbus sailed west under the Spanish Crown seeking a route to Asia, making landfall in the Bahamas on 12 October 1492 and initiating sustained contact between Europe and the Americas. He explored Cuba and Hispaniola and founded the short-lived La Navidad. His 1492–1493 journal, the earliest detailed European account of the Caribbean, survives only through the abstracted transcription of Bartolomé de las Casas. Christopher Columbus Columbus' Diary of His First Voyage Read Document 02/15/1493 Columbus’s letter announcing the results of his first voyage was published across Europe, describing the islands he encountered, their peoples, and the vast potential for wealth and Christian expansion. Framing the discovery as a triumph for Spain, the letter promised new lands rich in resources and ripe for conversion, bolstering Spanish prestige and competition with rival European powers. Christopher Columbus Columbus' Letter of His First Voyage Read Document 05/04/1493 Issued in 1493, Pope Alexander VI grants Spain rights to lands “discovered” west of a line of longitude while recognizing prior Portuguese claims to lands east of it. Written in Latin, this bull established the principle that non-Christian lands could be claimed by European powers, forming the basis for future colonization of the Americas. Pope Alexander VI Inter caetera Read Document 06/07/1494 An agreement between Spain and Portugal, mediated by the Pope, that divided newly discovered lands outside Europe along a meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands. This treaty granted Spain rights to most of the Americas while Portugal secured control over Africa, Asia, and later Brazil, shaping the course of global empire. Pope Alexander VI Treaty of Tordesillas Read Document 03/05/1496 Venetian explorer John Cabot, sailing under commission from England’s Henry VII, made landfall on the coast of North America, likely Newfoundland, on June 24, becoming the first known European since the Norse to reach the mainland. His voyage laid the foundation for England’s territorial claims in the New World, shaping the future of English colonization. Henry VII John Cabot's First Patent Read Document 05/10/1497 Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine navigator working for Spain, claimed to have sailed on a 1497–1498 voyage along the coast of the New World, possibly reaching Central America, though the authenticity of this voyage remains disputed by historians. Amerigo Vespucci Amerigo Vespucci First Voyage Read Document 07/22/1497 The Spanish Crown issued royal instructions authorizing Christopher Columbus to promote permanent settlement on Hispaniola by distributing land and requiring colonists to cultivate crops and develop the island’s resources. This decree marked an early shift from exploration toward organized colonization and agricultural exploitation in Spain’s emerging American empire. Ferdinand of Aragon Decree to Cultivate American Colonies Read Document 03/05/1498 Second letters patent issued by Henry VII granting John Cabot authority to outfit up to six ships and return to newly discovered lands (February 3, 1498), expanding royal support for exploration while relying on private financing, after which Cabot departed later that year on a voyage whose date, route, and fate remain unknown, with his pension ending in 1499 suggesting he likely died during or shortly after the expedition. Henry VII John Cabot's Second Patent Read Document 1503 Mundus Novus is a letter, attributed to Amerigo Vespucci, describing his voyages to the newly encountered lands across the Atlantic. Written in Latin and first printed in 1503, it introduced European readers to the idea that these lands were not Asia, but a “New World” previously unknown to Europeans. The letter emphasizes the vast size, natural wealth, and distinct peoples of these territories, fueling curiosity and prompting further exploration. Amerigo Vespucci Mundus Novus Read Document 12/27/1512 Promulgated by King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Juana of Castile in Burgos, Spain; the first comprehensive legal code regulating Spanish conduct, labor obligations, living conditions, and religious instruction of Indigenous peoples in the Americas, initially on Hispaniola and later applied to Puerto Rico and Jamaica, establishing the Crown’s framework for colonial governance and the treatment of native populations. Ferdinand of Aragon The Laws of Burgos 1 2 3 ... 135 1 ... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 ... 135 Biographies Christopher Columbus Christopher Columbus (1451–1506) was a Genoese navigator who sailed under the Spanish Crown and completed four transatlantic voyages beginning in 1492. He is best known for making sustained European contact with the Americas while searching for a western sea route to Asia. His expeditions initiated the Columbian Exchange and Spanish colonization of the Caribbean, though his governance and treatment of Indigenous peoples remain deeply controversial. View Bio John Rolfe John Rolfe (c. 1585–1622) was an English colonist who became one of the most important figures in the early development of Virginia. He helped establish Virginia’s tobacco industry and married Pocahontas in 1614, contributing to a period of improved relations between the English and the Powhatan Confederacy. His legacy is closely tied to the economic growth of Jamestown, the colonization of Virginia, and the complex history of English-Indigenous relations in early America. View Bio John Winthrop John Winthrop (1588–1649) was an English Puritan leader who helped establish the Massachusetts Bay Colony and served as its governor for much of its early history. In 1630, he led a large group of Puritan settlers to New England as part of the Great Migration, seeking to establish a religious community based on Puritan principles. As governor, Winthrop shaped the colony's government and society, leaving a lasting legacy as one of the most influential leaders in early New England. View Bio Benjamin Franklin Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) rose from humble beginnings as a runaway printer’s apprentice to become a leading writer, scientist, diplomat, and statesman whose influence shaped every stage of America’s founding. Through intellect, wit, and practical wisdom, he helped secure independence, unite the colonies, and design a constitutional republic that could endure. View Bio Roger Sherman Roger Sherman (1721–1793) was a Connecticut statesman and lawyer who played a central role in America’s founding and is the only person to sign all four key founding documents: the Continental Association, the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, and the U.S. Constitution. A delegate to both Continental Congresses and the Constitutional Convention, he later served in the first U.S. House of Representatives and Senate, shaping the early structure of the federal government. View Bio Samuel Adams Samuel Adams (1722–1803) was an American revolutionary, Founding Father, and political leader who became one of the most influential organizers of resistance to British rule. He helped mobilize opposition to British taxation, supported American independence, signed the Declaration of Independence, and later served as governor of Massachusetts. He opposed the ratification of the U.S. Constitution. View Bio Reset Filter by Era Tags Filter by Office Tags 1 2 3 ... 9 1 ... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ... 9

< Back Federal Government Agriculture Biotechnology, Horticulture, and Research Commodity Exchanges, Energy, and Credit Conservation and Forestry Full Committee General Farm Commodities and Risk Management Livestock and Foreign Agriculture Nutrition, Oversight, and Department Operations Previous Next

< Back Evan Louey-Dacus Volunteer Coordinator Evan is the Volunteer Coordinator at Tarpeia. He also serves as President of the King's Debate Society at The King's College in New York. He has experience in market research, social media management, and project management. Some of his favorite pastimes are video games and horseback riding. His favorite topics of conversation are alternate history and Lord of the Rings.

< Back Alaska This is placeholder text. To change this content, double-click on the element and click Change Content. Want to view and manage all your collections? Click on the Content Manager button in the Add panel on the left. Here, you can make changes to your content, add new fields, create dynamic pages and more. You can create as many collections as you need. Your collection is already set up for you with fields and content. Add your own, or import content from a CSV file. Add fields for any type of content you want to display, such as rich text, images, videos and more. You can also collect and store information from your site visitors using input elements like custom forms and fields. Be sure to click Sync after making changes in a collection, so visitors can see your newest content on your live site. Preview your site to check that all your elements are displaying content from the right collection fields. Previous Next

Abraham Lincoln Abraham Lincoln (1809–1865) was the 16th President of the United States and one of the most consequential figures in American history. Born in a log cabin in Kentucky, Lincoln rose from a largely self-taught frontier upbringing to become a lawyer, legislator, and national political leader. His presidency coincided with the American Civil War, the greatest constitutional and military crisis in the nation's history. Lincoln's leadership preserved the Union, transformed the war into a struggle against slavery, and ultimately helped bring about the abolition of slavery in the United States. His life was marked by persistent self-education, political ambition, personal tragedy, and an evolving commitment to the principles of equality and republican government. Lincoln was born on February 12, 1809, near Hodgenville, Kentucky, to Thomas and Nancy Lincoln. His family lived on small farms and eventually moved to southern Indiana and then Illinois, seeking better opportunities and more reliable land. Lincoln received little formal education, attending school intermittently for a total of roughly one year, but he developed an intense habit of reading and educating himself. His mother died when he was nine, and his family later welcomed Sarah Bush Johnston, his father's second wife, who encouraged his intellectual interests. As a young man, Lincoln worked as a farm laborer, shopkeeper, and riverboat worker, gaining experience with the hardships and opportunities of frontier life. In 1830, his family settled in Illinois, where Lincoln soon began establishing an independent life and pursuing his own ambitions. Lincoln's political and professional career began in Illinois. In 1832, he served briefly as a captain in the Illinois militia during the Black Hawk War and ran unsuccessfully for the Illinois House of Representatives. He won election in 1834 and served four terms, becoming associated with the Whig Party and supporting economic development, internal improvements, and a strong commercial infrastructure. While serving in the legislature, Lincoln studied law and was admitted to the Illinois bar in 1836, eventually establishing a successful practice in Springfield. He served one term in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1847 to 1849, where he criticized President James K. Polk's justification for the Mexican-American War. Lincoln returned to law after leaving Congress, but the expansion of slavery into the western territories drew him back into national politics. His debates with Stephen A. Douglas and his powerful arguments against the spread of slavery made him a leading figure in the newly formed Republican Party, helping propel him to the presidency in 1860. Lincoln assumed the presidency on March 4, 1861, as the nation moved rapidly toward civil war. Seven Southern states had already seceded, and the Confederate States of America had been established before he took office. After Confederate forces attacked Fort Sumter in April 1861, Lincoln called for volunteers to suppress the rebellion, and four additional slave states subsequently joined the Confederacy. As commander in chief, he oversaw the Union's enormous military and political effort, issued the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863, and supported the recruitment of Black soldiers into the Union Army. His administration also enacted major legislation, including the Homestead Act, the Morrill Land-Grant Act, and the Pacific Railway Act. Lincoln's reelection in 1864 demonstrated continued Northern support for his leadership, while Union victories at Gettysburg, Vicksburg, Atlanta, and elsewhere increasingly secured the war's outcome. In his Second Inaugural Address, Lincoln emphasized reconciliation and national responsibility, declaring his determination to finish the war while seeking a lasting peace. Lincoln never had a conventional post-presidency because his life ended only weeks after his second inauguration. By early 1865, Union victory was becoming certain, and Lincoln began considering how the defeated Southern states would be restored to the Union. He supported a relatively lenient approach to Reconstruction and promoted the idea that the former Confederate states should return to the Union rather than be treated as permanently conquered territories. He also increasingly advocated legal and political rights for formerly enslaved people, although his ideas about the extent of Black citizenship and voting rights continued to develop. In his final public speech, delivered on April 11, 1865, Lincoln discussed Reconstruction and expressed support for limited voting rights for some Black Americans, particularly those who were educated or had served in the Union military. His administration therefore ended at the beginning of the difficult transition from civil war to Reconstruction. On the evening of April 14, 1865, Lincoln attended a performance of Our American Cousin at Ford's Theatre in Washington, D.C. While he was seated in the presidential box, Confederate sympathizer and actor John Wilkes Booth entered and shot him in the back of the head. Lincoln was carried across the street to Petersen House, where he died early on April 15, 1865, at the age of 56. His assassination shocked the nation and transformed him into a martyr for the Union cause. Lincoln's legacy rests principally on his preservation of the United States, his role in destroying slavery, and his defense of constitutional government during the Civil War. His speeches, particularly the Gettysburg Address and Second Inaugural Address, became enduring statements of American republican ideals, while his presidency established a lasting historical model of presidential leadership during national crisis.

A DMCA (Digital Millennium Copyright Act) notification, also known as a DMCA takedown notice, is a legal request sent by the copyright owner or their representative to an online service provider, web hosting company, or website operator. The purpose of this notification is to request the removal of content that allegedly infringes on the copyright owner's rights. < Back DMCA Notification Guidelines A DMCA (Digital Millennium Copyright Act) notification, also known as a DMCA takedown notice, is a legal request sent by the copyright owner or their representative to an online service provider, web hosting company, or website operator. The purpose of this notification is to request the removal of content that allegedly infringes on the copyright owner's rights. Digital Millennium Copyright Act Notification Guidelines Notification of Infringement It is our policy to respond to clear notices of alleged copyright infringement. This page explains the information that must be included in these notices, as required by the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (“DMCA”). Upon receipt of a DMCA compliant notice, Amending America ltd., a 501(c)(3) organization (“Amending America”), will expeditiously remove or disable access to the content that is the subject of the notice. If you are a copyright owner or an authorized agent thereof, and you wish to file a notice of infringement with us, then you may submit a notice by providing Amending America’s Designated Copyright Agent with the following information in writing (please consult your legal counsel or See 17 U.S.C. Section 512(c)(3) to confirm these requirements): A physical or electronic signature of a person authorized to act on behalf of the owner of an exclusive right that is allegedly infringed. Identification of the copyrighted work claimed to have been infringed, or, if multiple copyrighted works on Amending America’s website are covered by a single notification, a representative list of such works at that site. Identification of the material that is claimed to be infringing or to be the subject of infringing activity and that is to be removed or access to which is to be disabled, and information reasonably sufficient to permit Amending America to locate the material. Information reasonably sufficient to permit Amending America to contact you, such as an address, telephone number, and, if available, an electronic mail address at which you may be contacted. A statement that you have a good faith belief that use of the material in the manner complained of is not authorized by the copyright owner, its agent, or the law. A statement that the information in the notification is accurate, and under penalty of perjury, that you are authorized to act on behalf of the owner of an exclusive right that is allegedly infringed. Please note that under Section 512(f) of the DMCA, any person who knowingly materially misrepresents that material or activity is infringing may be subject to liability. If you are unsure whether the material available online infringes your copyright, we suggest that you contact an attorney before sending us a notice. Counter-Notification The administrator of an affected site or the provider of affected content may make a counter notification under sections 512(g)(2) and (3) of the DMCA. If you elect to send us a counter notice, to be effective it must be a written communication that includes the following (please consult your legal counsel or See 17 U.S.C. Section 512(g)(3) to confirm these requirements): A physical or electronic signature of the subscriber. Identification of the material that has been removed or to which access has been disabled and the location at which the material appeared before it was removed or access to it was disabled. A statement under penalty of perjury that the subscriber has a good faith belief that the material was removed or disabled as a result of mistake or misidentification of the material to be removed or disabled. The subscriber’s name, address, and telephone number, and a statement that the subscriber consents to the jurisdiction of Federal District Court for the judicial district in which the address is located, or if the subscriber’s address is outside of the United States, for any judicial district in which Amending America may be found, and that the subscriber will accept service of process from the person who provided notification under subsection (c)(1)(C) or an agent of such person. Please note that under Section 512(f) of the Copyright Act, any person who knowingly materially misrepresents that material or activity was removed or disabled by mistake or misidentification may be subject to liability. Designated Copyright Agent Amending America’s Designated Copyright Agent to receive notifications and counter-notifications of claimed infringement can be reached as follows: Email: amendingamericaltd@gmail.com For clarity, only DMCA notices should go to the Khan Academy Designated Copyright Agent. Any other feedback, comments, requests for technical support or other communications should be directed to Khan Academy through info@khanacademy.org . You acknowledge that if you fail to comply with all of the requirements of this section, your DMCA notice may not be valid. Account Termination In appropriate circumstances, Amending America will promptly terminate, without notice, the accounts of those determined in our sole discretion to be "repeat infringers." Previous Next

World Wars Era Chapter 20: World War II 1941 ― 1945 Arsenal of Democracy 1941-1942 Allies Strike Back 1942-1944 Final Victory 1944-1945 Great Depression 1929 ― 1941 Previous Chapter Containment 1945 ― 1961 Next Chapter World Wars Era Sponsors In Grateful Recognition "Patrons of the Past" (Sponsoring all nine Eras) Doug Shubert Adam Shubert Cathy Gillespie Sponsor an Era Documents Filter by Type Filter by Author Reset Filter by Era Master Index Read Document 04/17/1492 The formal agreement between Christopher Columbus and the Catholic Monarchs, outlining the terms of his voyage, including titles, governance, and a share of profits from any lands discovered. It provides a primary record of how Spain officially authorized and incentivized overseas exploration, establishing Columbus’s authority and the framework for his expeditions. Ferdinand of Aragon Capitulations of Santa Fe Read Document 04/30/1492 Issued by Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, the charter grants Christopher Columbus hereditary titles of Admiral of the Ocean Sea, Viceroy, and Governor over discovered lands, along with a share of profits. It establishes a legal and economic framework for exploration, showing how the Spanish Crown incentivized expansion through private enterprise while maintaining authority over commerce, territory, and governance. Ferdinand of Aragon Privileges Granted to Columbus Read Document 08/03/1492 Columbus sailed west under the Spanish Crown seeking a route to Asia, making landfall in the Bahamas on 12 October 1492 and initiating sustained contact between Europe and the Americas. He explored Cuba and Hispaniola and founded the short-lived La Navidad. His 1492–1493 journal, the earliest detailed European account of the Caribbean, survives only through the abstracted transcription of Bartolomé de las Casas. Christopher Columbus Columbus' Diary of His First Voyage Read Document 02/15/1493 Columbus’s letter announcing the results of his first voyage was published across Europe, describing the islands he encountered, their peoples, and the vast potential for wealth and Christian expansion. Framing the discovery as a triumph for Spain, the letter promised new lands rich in resources and ripe for conversion, bolstering Spanish prestige and competition with rival European powers. Christopher Columbus Columbus' Letter of His First Voyage Read Document 05/04/1493 Issued in 1493, Pope Alexander VI grants Spain rights to lands “discovered” west of a line of longitude while recognizing prior Portuguese claims to lands east of it. Written in Latin, this bull established the principle that non-Christian lands could be claimed by European powers, forming the basis for future colonization of the Americas. Pope Alexander VI Inter caetera Read Document 06/07/1494 An agreement between Spain and Portugal, mediated by the Pope, that divided newly discovered lands outside Europe along a meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands. This treaty granted Spain rights to most of the Americas while Portugal secured control over Africa, Asia, and later Brazil, shaping the course of global empire. Pope Alexander VI Treaty of Tordesillas Read Document 03/05/1496 Venetian explorer John Cabot, sailing under commission from England’s Henry VII, made landfall on the coast of North America, likely Newfoundland, on June 24, becoming the first known European since the Norse to reach the mainland. His voyage laid the foundation for England’s territorial claims in the New World, shaping the future of English colonization. Henry VII John Cabot's First Patent Read Document 05/10/1497 Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine navigator working for Spain, claimed to have sailed on a 1497–1498 voyage along the coast of the New World, possibly reaching Central America, though the authenticity of this voyage remains disputed by historians. Amerigo Vespucci Amerigo Vespucci First Voyage Read Document 07/22/1497 The Spanish Crown issued royal instructions authorizing Christopher Columbus to promote permanent settlement on Hispaniola by distributing land and requiring colonists to cultivate crops and develop the island’s resources. This decree marked an early shift from exploration toward organized colonization and agricultural exploitation in Spain’s emerging American empire. Ferdinand of Aragon Decree to Cultivate American Colonies Read Document 03/05/1498 Second letters patent issued by Henry VII granting John Cabot authority to outfit up to six ships and return to newly discovered lands (February 3, 1498), expanding royal support for exploration while relying on private financing, after which Cabot departed later that year on a voyage whose date, route, and fate remain unknown, with his pension ending in 1499 suggesting he likely died during or shortly after the expedition. Henry VII John Cabot's Second Patent Read Document 1503 Mundus Novus is a letter, attributed to Amerigo Vespucci, describing his voyages to the newly encountered lands across the Atlantic. Written in Latin and first printed in 1503, it introduced European readers to the idea that these lands were not Asia, but a “New World” previously unknown to Europeans. The letter emphasizes the vast size, natural wealth, and distinct peoples of these territories, fueling curiosity and prompting further exploration. Amerigo Vespucci Mundus Novus Read Document 12/27/1512 Promulgated by King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Juana of Castile in Burgos, Spain; the first comprehensive legal code regulating Spanish conduct, labor obligations, living conditions, and religious instruction of Indigenous peoples in the Americas, initially on Hispaniola and later applied to Puerto Rico and Jamaica, establishing the Crown’s framework for colonial governance and the treatment of native populations. Ferdinand of Aragon The Laws of Burgos 1 2 3 ... 135 1 ... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 ... 135 Biographies Christopher Columbus Christopher Columbus (1451–1506) was a Genoese navigator who sailed under the Spanish Crown and completed four transatlantic voyages beginning in 1492. He is best known for making sustained European contact with the Americas while searching for a western sea route to Asia. His expeditions initiated the Columbian Exchange and Spanish colonization of the Caribbean, though his governance and treatment of Indigenous peoples remain deeply controversial. View Bio John Rolfe John Rolfe (c. 1585–1622) was an English colonist who became one of the most important figures in the early development of Virginia. He helped establish Virginia’s tobacco industry and married Pocahontas in 1614, contributing to a period of improved relations between the English and the Powhatan Confederacy. His legacy is closely tied to the economic growth of Jamestown, the colonization of Virginia, and the complex history of English-Indigenous relations in early America. View Bio John Winthrop John Winthrop (1588–1649) was an English Puritan leader who helped establish the Massachusetts Bay Colony and served as its governor for much of its early history. In 1630, he led a large group of Puritan settlers to New England as part of the Great Migration, seeking to establish a religious community based on Puritan principles. As governor, Winthrop shaped the colony's government and society, leaving a lasting legacy as one of the most influential leaders in early New England. View Bio Benjamin Franklin Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) rose from humble beginnings as a runaway printer’s apprentice to become a leading writer, scientist, diplomat, and statesman whose influence shaped every stage of America’s founding. Through intellect, wit, and practical wisdom, he helped secure independence, unite the colonies, and design a constitutional republic that could endure. View Bio Roger Sherman Roger Sherman (1721–1793) was a Connecticut statesman and lawyer who played a central role in America’s founding and is the only person to sign all four key founding documents: the Continental Association, the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, and the U.S. Constitution. A delegate to both Continental Congresses and the Constitutional Convention, he later served in the first U.S. House of Representatives and Senate, shaping the early structure of the federal government. View Bio Samuel Adams Samuel Adams (1722–1803) was an American revolutionary, Founding Father, and political leader who became one of the most influential organizers of resistance to British rule. He helped mobilize opposition to British taxation, supported American independence, signed the Declaration of Independence, and later served as governor of Massachusetts. He opposed the ratification of the U.S. Constitution. View Bio Reset Filter by Era Tags Filter by Office Tags 1 2 3 ... 9 1 ... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ... 9

< Back Phillip Gruenemay Volunteer Phillip Gruenemay is an American History Researcher at Amending America. Phillip, a lifelong resident of Bothell, Washington, is a recent graduate of the University of Washington, Bothell with a Bachelors in Media & Communication Studies. Among his many interests is American History, where he feels that some of the most interesting periods of American History are the seemingly uneventful ones (such as the Era of Good Feelings and the Gilded Age of the late 1800s). Phillip has been fortunate to have the first of his three research papers on the influence of then-current sociohistorical events on select silent movies from 1895 to 1927 by the UW Campus Research & Observational Writings (or CROW) Journal in June of 2024, with the other two hopefully soon to follow. In his spare time, Phillip enjoys reading, watching movies & TV shows, and playing video games.

As Chief Producer you are tasked with managing the product line. You will have the jurisdiction to suggest changes to quality, pricing, which products to sell, which to drop, design of products, all with the consent of the Chief Marketer and Chair. < Back Chief Producer Apply Now Job Type Volunteer About the Role As Chief Producer you are tasked with managing the product line. You will have the jurisdiction to suggest changes to quality, pricing, which products to sell, which to drop, design of products, all with the consent of the Chief Marketer and Chair. Requirements Prior experience with product line management and sales About the Company Amending America is an educational support services 501(c)(3) that specializes in American History, Civics, and Constitutional Law, and provides a variety of different resources for people to learn from including online courses, research projects, videos, and an extensive library of primary source documents. Apply Now

Colonial Era Chapter 1: La Conquista 1492 ― 1603 Conquistadors of the Caribbean 1492-1516 The Tierra Firme 1516-1558 Elizabethan Age 1558-1603 No Earlier Chapter Previous Chapter Nova Britannia 1603 ― 1675 Next Chapter Colonial Era Sponsors In Grateful Recognition "Patrons of the Past" (Sponsoring all nine Eras) Doug Shubert Adam Shubert Cathy Gillespie Sponsors of the Colonial Era: Bernie Frischer Sponsor an Era Documents Filter by Type Filter by Author Reset Filter by Era Master Index Read Document 04/17/1492 The formal agreement between Christopher Columbus and the Catholic Monarchs, outlining the terms of his voyage, including titles, governance, and a share of profits from any lands discovered. It provides a primary record of how Spain officially authorized and incentivized overseas exploration, establishing Columbus’s authority and the framework for his expeditions. Ferdinand of Aragon Capitulations of Santa Fe Read Document 04/30/1492 Issued by Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, the charter grants Christopher Columbus hereditary titles of Admiral of the Ocean Sea, Viceroy, and Governor over discovered lands, along with a share of profits. It establishes a legal and economic framework for exploration, showing how the Spanish Crown incentivized expansion through private enterprise while maintaining authority over commerce, territory, and governance. Ferdinand of Aragon Privileges Granted to Columbus Read Document 08/03/1492 Columbus sailed west under the Spanish Crown seeking a route to Asia, making landfall in the Bahamas on 12 October 1492 and initiating sustained contact between Europe and the Americas. He explored Cuba and Hispaniola and founded the short-lived La Navidad. His 1492–1493 journal, the earliest detailed European account of the Caribbean, survives only through the abstracted transcription of Bartolomé de las Casas. Christopher Columbus Columbus' Diary of His First Voyage Read Document 02/15/1493 Columbus’s letter announcing the results of his first voyage was published across Europe, describing the islands he encountered, their peoples, and the vast potential for wealth and Christian expansion. Framing the discovery as a triumph for Spain, the letter promised new lands rich in resources and ripe for conversion, bolstering Spanish prestige and competition with rival European powers. Christopher Columbus Columbus' Letter of His First Voyage Read Document 05/04/1493 Issued in 1493, Pope Alexander VI grants Spain rights to lands “discovered” west of a line of longitude while recognizing prior Portuguese claims to lands east of it. Written in Latin, this bull established the principle that non-Christian lands could be claimed by European powers, forming the basis for future colonization of the Americas. Pope Alexander VI Inter caetera Read Document 06/07/1494 An agreement between Spain and Portugal, mediated by the Pope, that divided newly discovered lands outside Europe along a meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands. This treaty granted Spain rights to most of the Americas while Portugal secured control over Africa, Asia, and later Brazil, shaping the course of global empire. Pope Alexander VI Treaty of Tordesillas Read Document 03/05/1496 Venetian explorer John Cabot, sailing under commission from England’s Henry VII, made landfall on the coast of North America, likely Newfoundland, on June 24, becoming the first known European since the Norse to reach the mainland. His voyage laid the foundation for England’s territorial claims in the New World, shaping the future of English colonization. Henry VII John Cabot's First Patent Read Document 05/10/1497 Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine navigator working for Spain, claimed to have sailed on a 1497–1498 voyage along the coast of the New World, possibly reaching Central America, though the authenticity of this voyage remains disputed by historians. Amerigo Vespucci Amerigo Vespucci First Voyage Read Document 07/22/1497 The Spanish Crown issued royal instructions authorizing Christopher Columbus to promote permanent settlement on Hispaniola by distributing land and requiring colonists to cultivate crops and develop the island’s resources. This decree marked an early shift from exploration toward organized colonization and agricultural exploitation in Spain’s emerging American empire. Ferdinand of Aragon Decree to Cultivate American Colonies Read Document 03/05/1498 Second letters patent issued by Henry VII granting John Cabot authority to outfit up to six ships and return to newly discovered lands (February 3, 1498), expanding royal support for exploration while relying on private financing, after which Cabot departed later that year on a voyage whose date, route, and fate remain unknown, with his pension ending in 1499 suggesting he likely died during or shortly after the expedition. Henry VII John Cabot's Second Patent Read Document 1503 Mundus Novus is a letter, attributed to Amerigo Vespucci, describing his voyages to the newly encountered lands across the Atlantic. Written in Latin and first printed in 1503, it introduced European readers to the idea that these lands were not Asia, but a “New World” previously unknown to Europeans. The letter emphasizes the vast size, natural wealth, and distinct peoples of these territories, fueling curiosity and prompting further exploration. Amerigo Vespucci Mundus Novus Read Document 12/27/1512 Promulgated by King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Juana of Castile in Burgos, Spain; the first comprehensive legal code regulating Spanish conduct, labor obligations, living conditions, and religious instruction of Indigenous peoples in the Americas, initially on Hispaniola and later applied to Puerto Rico and Jamaica, establishing the Crown’s framework for colonial governance and the treatment of native populations. Ferdinand of Aragon The Laws of Burgos 1 2 3 ... 135 1 ... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 ... 135 Biographies Christopher Columbus Christopher Columbus (1451–1506) was a Genoese navigator who sailed under the Spanish Crown and completed four transatlantic voyages beginning in 1492. He is best known for making sustained European contact with the Americas while searching for a western sea route to Asia. His expeditions initiated the Columbian Exchange and Spanish colonization of the Caribbean, though his governance and treatment of Indigenous peoples remain deeply controversial. View Bio John Rolfe John Rolfe (c. 1585–1622) was an English colonist who became one of the most important figures in the early development of Virginia. He helped establish Virginia’s tobacco industry and married Pocahontas in 1614, contributing to a period of improved relations between the English and the Powhatan Confederacy. His legacy is closely tied to the economic growth of Jamestown, the colonization of Virginia, and the complex history of English-Indigenous relations in early America. View Bio John Winthrop John Winthrop (1588–1649) was an English Puritan leader who helped establish the Massachusetts Bay Colony and served as its governor for much of its early history. In 1630, he led a large group of Puritan settlers to New England as part of the Great Migration, seeking to establish a religious community based on Puritan principles. As governor, Winthrop shaped the colony's government and society, leaving a lasting legacy as one of the most influential leaders in early New England. View Bio Benjamin Franklin Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) rose from humble beginnings as a runaway printer’s apprentice to become a leading writer, scientist, diplomat, and statesman whose influence shaped every stage of America’s founding. Through intellect, wit, and practical wisdom, he helped secure independence, unite the colonies, and design a constitutional republic that could endure. View Bio Roger Sherman Roger Sherman (1721–1793) was a Connecticut statesman and lawyer who played a central role in America’s founding and is the only person to sign all four key founding documents: the Continental Association, the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, and the U.S. Constitution. A delegate to both Continental Congresses and the Constitutional Convention, he later served in the first U.S. House of Representatives and Senate, shaping the early structure of the federal government. View Bio Samuel Adams Samuel Adams (1722–1803) was an American revolutionary, Founding Father, and political leader who became one of the most influential organizers of resistance to British rule. He helped mobilize opposition to British taxation, supported American independence, signed the Declaration of Independence, and later served as governor of Massachusetts. He opposed the ratification of the U.S. Constitution. View Bio Reset Filter by Era Tags Filter by Office Tags 1 2 3 ... 9 1 ... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ... 9

< Back Cydnee Melville Proctor Cydnee Melville is an American History Researcher at Amending America. Cydnee resides in Denver, Colorado with two children, Zeus the Goldendoodle and two cats named Sophie and Jules Vern. She has a bachelor’s degree in European history and master's degree in public history. Before she became a historian, she was a culinary chef for over 21 years. Her interests include Military War, European History, Norse Mythology, Greek Mythology, Culinary History, and Cryptozoology. She also recently completed an online exhibit and thesis called, “An Examination of Haiti After the Haitian Revolution: Destruction of a Nation.” Her hobbies include snowboarding, world traveling, reading, beer making, cooking, and watching documentaries.