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< Back Gilder-Lehrman Institute Educational Nonprofit The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History was founded in 1994 by Richard Gilder and Lewis E. Lehrman, visionaries and lifelong supporters of American history education. The Institute is the leading nonprofit organization dedicated to K–12 history education while also serving the general public. Its mission is to promote the knowledge and understanding of American history through educational programs and resources. At the Institute’s core is the Gilder Lehrman Collection, one of the great archives in American history. Drawing on the 86,000 documents in the Gilder Lehrman Collection and an extensive network of eminent historians, the Institute provides teachers, students, and the general public with direct access to unique primary source materials. As a 501(c)(3) nonprofit public charity the Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History is supported through the generosity of individuals, corporations, and foundations. The Institute’s programs have been recognized by awards from the White House, the National Endowment for the Humanities, the Organization of American Historians, the Council of Independent Colleges, and the National Daughters of the American Revolution.

Lyndon B. Johnson Lyndon Baines Johnson (1908–1973) was the 36th president of the United States, serving from 1963 to 1969. A masterful and often controversial politician, Johnson transformed American domestic policy through an ambitious program of legislation that he called the Great Society, while his presidency was increasingly defined by the Vietnam War. Rising from humble beginnings in the Texas Hill Country, Johnson built a career through education, congressional politics, and an extraordinary ability to cultivate political relationships. His presidency produced landmark achievements in civil rights, voting rights, health care, education, and poverty reduction, but the escalating war in Vietnam damaged his popularity and ultimately contributed to his decision not to seek reelection in 1968. Johnson was born on August 27, 1908, near Stonewall, Texas, to Samuel Ealy Johnson Jr., a farmer and state legislator, and Rebekah Baines Johnson. He grew up in a family that valued education and public service, although his family's financial circumstances were often difficult. Johnson attended Southwest Texas State Teachers College, now Texas State University, where he studied history and political science and became deeply interested in government. To help pay his way through school, he worked as a teacher, including at a Mexican American school in Cotulla, Texas. The experience exposed him to severe poverty and educational inequality and influenced his later belief that government could be used to expand opportunity. After graduating in 1930, Johnson briefly taught high school before entering politics. Johnson's political career began in 1931 when he became secretary to Congressman Richard Kleberg of Texas. He quickly learned the mechanics of political organization and developed a reputation for extraordinary ambition and energy. In 1937, he was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives, where he became a strong supporter of President Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal. Johnson won election to the Senate in 1948 after a notoriously close and controversial election and gradually became one of the most powerful legislators in Washington. He served as Senate Democratic whip and then Senate majority leader, becoming famous for his ability to persuade, pressure, and sometimes intimidate fellow senators into supporting legislation. In 1960, Democratic presidential nominee John F. Kennedy selected Johnson as his running mate, and Johnson became vice president after Kennedy's victory. The partnership was often strained, but Johnson's experience in Congress provided the Kennedy administration with an important connection to Capitol Hill. Johnson became president on November 22, 1963, following Kennedy's assassination, and was elected to a full term in 1964 in one of the largest electoral victories in American history. He used his political skill to push an extraordinary amount of legislation through Congress. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965 attacked legal segregation and racial discrimination, while Medicare and Medicaid created major new federal health-care programs. His Great Society programs also expanded federal aid to education, created initiatives against poverty, supported urban development, strengthened environmental protections, and established new immigration policies through the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965. At the same time, Johnson dramatically expanded American military involvement in Vietnam, eventually sending hundreds of thousands of U.S. troops to fight the communist-led North Vietnamese and Viet Cong. As casualties mounted and the war became increasingly unpopular, domestic divisions intensified, overshadowing many of his domestic accomplishments. After announcing in March 1968 that he would not seek another term, Johnson left the White House in January 1969 and returned to his ranch near Stonewall, Texas. He largely withdrew from active politics but remained interested in national affairs and worked on his memoirs. He also oversaw the creation of the Lyndon Baines Johnson Library and Museum in Austin, which opened in 1971 and preserved the records of his political career and presidency. Johnson spent his final years reflecting on his achievements and failures, particularly the Vietnam War, which he increasingly regarded as one of the great tragedies of his presidency. Although he remained a deeply polarizing figure, he continued to defend the Great Society and his efforts to expand civil rights and economic opportunity. Johnson died of a heart attack at his ranch on January 22, 1973, at the age of 64, only two days after the second inauguration of Richard Nixon. He was buried at the Johnson family cemetery near his birthplace in Stonewall, Texas. His legacy remains profoundly mixed: his presidency helped produce some of the most consequential civil rights and social-welfare legislation in American history, while his escalation of the Vietnam War caused immense human suffering and contributed to a crisis of confidence in the federal government. Historians continue to debate the balance between these achievements and failures, but Johnson's impact is unmistakable. Few presidents demonstrated more clearly how political power could be used to reshape American society—and how the exercise of that power could produce consequences that extended far beyond the president's ability to control them. President, Vice President, Senator, Representative

Revolutionary Era Chapter 5: Independence 1775 ― 1784 Dissolving the Bands 1775-1776 The Great Revolution 1776-1782 Novus Ordo Seclorum 1782-1784 Join or Die 1763 ― 1775 Previous Chapter More Perfect Union 1784 ― 1789 Next Chapter Revolutionary Era Sponsors In Grateful Recognition "Patrons of the Past" (Sponsoring all nine Eras) Doug Shubert Adam Shubert Cathy Gillespie Sponsor an Era Documents Filter by Type Filter by Author Reset Filter by Era Master Index Read Document 04/17/1492 The formal agreement between Christopher Columbus and the Catholic Monarchs, outlining the terms of his voyage, including titles, governance, and a share of profits from any lands discovered. It provides a primary record of how Spain officially authorized and incentivized overseas exploration, establishing Columbus’s authority and the framework for his expeditions. Ferdinand of Aragon Capitulations of Santa Fe Read Document 04/30/1492 Issued by Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, the charter grants Christopher Columbus hereditary titles of Admiral of the Ocean Sea, Viceroy, and Governor over discovered lands, along with a share of profits. It establishes a legal and economic framework for exploration, showing how the Spanish Crown incentivized expansion through private enterprise while maintaining authority over commerce, territory, and governance. Ferdinand of Aragon Privileges Granted to Columbus Read Document 08/03/1492 Columbus sailed west under the Spanish Crown seeking a route to Asia, making landfall in the Bahamas on 12 October 1492 and initiating sustained contact between Europe and the Americas. He explored Cuba and Hispaniola and founded the short-lived La Navidad. His 1492–1493 journal, the earliest detailed European account of the Caribbean, survives only through the abstracted transcription of Bartolomé de las Casas. Christopher Columbus Columbus' Diary of His First Voyage Read Document 02/15/1493 Columbus’s letter announcing the results of his first voyage was published across Europe, describing the islands he encountered, their peoples, and the vast potential for wealth and Christian expansion. Framing the discovery as a triumph for Spain, the letter promised new lands rich in resources and ripe for conversion, bolstering Spanish prestige and competition with rival European powers. Christopher Columbus Columbus' Letter of His First Voyage Read Document 05/04/1493 Issued in 1493, Pope Alexander VI grants Spain rights to lands “discovered” west of a line of longitude while recognizing prior Portuguese claims to lands east of it. Written in Latin, this bull established the principle that non-Christian lands could be claimed by European powers, forming the basis for future colonization of the Americas. Pope Alexander VI Inter caetera Read Document 06/07/1494 An agreement between Spain and Portugal, mediated by the Pope, that divided newly discovered lands outside Europe along a meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands. This treaty granted Spain rights to most of the Americas while Portugal secured control over Africa, Asia, and later Brazil, shaping the course of global empire. Pope Alexander VI Treaty of Tordesillas Read Document 03/05/1496 Venetian explorer John Cabot, sailing under commission from England’s Henry VII, made landfall on the coast of North America, likely Newfoundland, on June 24, becoming the first known European since the Norse to reach the mainland. His voyage laid the foundation for England’s territorial claims in the New World, shaping the future of English colonization. Henry VII John Cabot's First Patent Read Document 05/10/1497 Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine navigator working for Spain, claimed to have sailed on a 1497–1498 voyage along the coast of the New World, possibly reaching Central America, though the authenticity of this voyage remains disputed by historians. Amerigo Vespucci Amerigo Vespucci First Voyage Read Document 07/22/1497 The Spanish Crown issued royal instructions authorizing Christopher Columbus to promote permanent settlement on Hispaniola by distributing land and requiring colonists to cultivate crops and develop the island’s resources. This decree marked an early shift from exploration toward organized colonization and agricultural exploitation in Spain’s emerging American empire. Ferdinand of Aragon Decree to Cultivate American Colonies Read Document 03/05/1498 Second letters patent issued by Henry VII granting John Cabot authority to outfit up to six ships and return to newly discovered lands (February 3, 1498), expanding royal support for exploration while relying on private financing, after which Cabot departed later that year on a voyage whose date, route, and fate remain unknown, with his pension ending in 1499 suggesting he likely died during or shortly after the expedition. Henry VII John Cabot's Second Patent Read Document 1503 Mundus Novus is a letter, attributed to Amerigo Vespucci, describing his voyages to the newly encountered lands across the Atlantic. Written in Latin and first printed in 1503, it introduced European readers to the idea that these lands were not Asia, but a “New World” previously unknown to Europeans. The letter emphasizes the vast size, natural wealth, and distinct peoples of these territories, fueling curiosity and prompting further exploration. Amerigo Vespucci Mundus Novus Read Document 12/27/1512 Promulgated by King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Juana of Castile in Burgos, Spain; the first comprehensive legal code regulating Spanish conduct, labor obligations, living conditions, and religious instruction of Indigenous peoples in the Americas, initially on Hispaniola and later applied to Puerto Rico and Jamaica, establishing the Crown’s framework for colonial governance and the treatment of native populations. Ferdinand of Aragon The Laws of Burgos 1 2 3 ... 135 1 ... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 ... 135 Biographies Christopher Columbus (1451–1506) was a Genoese navigator who sailed under the Spanish Crown and completed four transatlantic voyages beginning in 1492. He is best known for making sustained European contact with the Americas while searching for a western sea route to Asia. His expeditions initiated the Columbian Exchange and Spanish colonization of the Caribbean, though his governance and treatment of Indigenous peoples remain deeply controversial. View Bio Christopher Columbus John Rolfe (c. 1585–1622) was an English colonist who became one of the most important figures in the early development of Virginia. He helped establish Virginia’s tobacco industry and married Pocahontas in 1614, contributing to a period of improved relations between the English and the Powhatan Confederacy. His legacy is closely tied to the economic growth of Jamestown, the colonization of Virginia, and the complex history of English-Indigenous relations in early America. View Bio John Rolfe John Winthrop (1588–1649) was an English Puritan leader who helped establish the Massachusetts Bay Colony and served as its governor for much of its early history. In 1630, he led a large group of Puritan settlers to New England as part of the Great Migration, seeking to establish a religious community based on Puritan principles. As governor, Winthrop shaped the colony's government and society, leaving a lasting legacy as one of the most influential leaders in early New England. View Bio John Winthrop Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) rose from humble beginnings as a runaway printer’s apprentice to become a leading writer, scientist, diplomat, and statesman whose influence shaped every stage of America’s founding. Through intellect, wit, and practical wisdom, he helped secure independence, unite the colonies, and design a constitutional republic that could endure. View Bio Benjamin Franklin Roger Sherman (1721–1793) was a Connecticut statesman and lawyer who played a central role in America’s founding and is the only person to sign all four key founding documents: the Continental Association, the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, and the U.S. Constitution. A delegate to both Continental Congresses and the Constitutional Convention, he later served in the first U.S. House of Representatives and Senate, shaping the early structure of the federal government. View Bio Roger Sherman Samuel Adams (1722–1803) was an American revolutionary, Founding Father, and political leader who became one of the most influential organizers of resistance to British rule. He helped mobilize opposition to British taxation, supported American independence, signed the Declaration of Independence, and later served as governor of Massachusetts. He opposed the ratification of the U.S. Constitution. View Bio Samuel Adams Reset Filter by Era Filter by Office 1 2 3 ... 18 1 ... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 ... 18 Search by Name

Progressive Era Chapter 16: New Nationalism 1897 ― 1913 New Exceptionalism 1897-1901 Square Deal 1901-1909 New Justice 1909-1913 Gilded Age 1885 ― 1897 Previous Chapter World War I 1913 ― 1921 Next Chapter Progressive Era Sponsors In Grateful Recognition "Patrons of the Past" (Sponsoring all nine Eras) Doug Shubert Adam Shubert Cathy Gillespie Sponsor an Era Documents Filter by Type Filter by Author Reset Filter by Era Master Index Read Document 04/17/1492 The formal agreement between Christopher Columbus and the Catholic Monarchs, outlining the terms of his voyage, including titles, governance, and a share of profits from any lands discovered. It provides a primary record of how Spain officially authorized and incentivized overseas exploration, establishing Columbus’s authority and the framework for his expeditions. Ferdinand of Aragon Capitulations of Santa Fe Read Document 04/30/1492 Issued by Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, the charter grants Christopher Columbus hereditary titles of Admiral of the Ocean Sea, Viceroy, and Governor over discovered lands, along with a share of profits. It establishes a legal and economic framework for exploration, showing how the Spanish Crown incentivized expansion through private enterprise while maintaining authority over commerce, territory, and governance. Ferdinand of Aragon Privileges Granted to Columbus Read Document 08/03/1492 Columbus sailed west under the Spanish Crown seeking a route to Asia, making landfall in the Bahamas on 12 October 1492 and initiating sustained contact between Europe and the Americas. He explored Cuba and Hispaniola and founded the short-lived La Navidad. His 1492–1493 journal, the earliest detailed European account of the Caribbean, survives only through the abstracted transcription of Bartolomé de las Casas. Christopher Columbus Columbus' Diary of His First Voyage Read Document 02/15/1493 Columbus’s letter announcing the results of his first voyage was published across Europe, describing the islands he encountered, their peoples, and the vast potential for wealth and Christian expansion. Framing the discovery as a triumph for Spain, the letter promised new lands rich in resources and ripe for conversion, bolstering Spanish prestige and competition with rival European powers. Christopher Columbus Columbus' Letter of His First Voyage Read Document 05/04/1493 Issued in 1493, Pope Alexander VI grants Spain rights to lands “discovered” west of a line of longitude while recognizing prior Portuguese claims to lands east of it. Written in Latin, this bull established the principle that non-Christian lands could be claimed by European powers, forming the basis for future colonization of the Americas. Pope Alexander VI Inter caetera Read Document 06/07/1494 An agreement between Spain and Portugal, mediated by the Pope, that divided newly discovered lands outside Europe along a meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands. This treaty granted Spain rights to most of the Americas while Portugal secured control over Africa, Asia, and later Brazil, shaping the course of global empire. Pope Alexander VI Treaty of Tordesillas Read Document 03/05/1496 Venetian explorer John Cabot, sailing under commission from England’s Henry VII, made landfall on the coast of North America, likely Newfoundland, on June 24, becoming the first known European since the Norse to reach the mainland. His voyage laid the foundation for England’s territorial claims in the New World, shaping the future of English colonization. Henry VII John Cabot's First Patent Read Document 05/10/1497 Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine navigator working for Spain, claimed to have sailed on a 1497–1498 voyage along the coast of the New World, possibly reaching Central America, though the authenticity of this voyage remains disputed by historians. Amerigo Vespucci Amerigo Vespucci First Voyage Read Document 07/22/1497 The Spanish Crown issued royal instructions authorizing Christopher Columbus to promote permanent settlement on Hispaniola by distributing land and requiring colonists to cultivate crops and develop the island’s resources. This decree marked an early shift from exploration toward organized colonization and agricultural exploitation in Spain’s emerging American empire. Ferdinand of Aragon Decree to Cultivate American Colonies Read Document 03/05/1498 Second letters patent issued by Henry VII granting John Cabot authority to outfit up to six ships and return to newly discovered lands (February 3, 1498), expanding royal support for exploration while relying on private financing, after which Cabot departed later that year on a voyage whose date, route, and fate remain unknown, with his pension ending in 1499 suggesting he likely died during or shortly after the expedition. Henry VII John Cabot's Second Patent Read Document 1503 Mundus Novus is a letter, attributed to Amerigo Vespucci, describing his voyages to the newly encountered lands across the Atlantic. Written in Latin and first printed in 1503, it introduced European readers to the idea that these lands were not Asia, but a “New World” previously unknown to Europeans. The letter emphasizes the vast size, natural wealth, and distinct peoples of these territories, fueling curiosity and prompting further exploration. Amerigo Vespucci Mundus Novus Read Document 12/27/1512 Promulgated by King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Juana of Castile in Burgos, Spain; the first comprehensive legal code regulating Spanish conduct, labor obligations, living conditions, and religious instruction of Indigenous peoples in the Americas, initially on Hispaniola and later applied to Puerto Rico and Jamaica, establishing the Crown’s framework for colonial governance and the treatment of native populations. Ferdinand of Aragon The Laws of Burgos 1 2 3 ... 135 1 ... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 ... 135 Biographies Christopher Columbus (1451–1506) was a Genoese navigator who sailed under the Spanish Crown and completed four transatlantic voyages beginning in 1492. He is best known for making sustained European contact with the Americas while searching for a western sea route to Asia. His expeditions initiated the Columbian Exchange and Spanish colonization of the Caribbean, though his governance and treatment of Indigenous peoples remain deeply controversial. View Bio Christopher Columbus John Rolfe (c. 1585–1622) was an English colonist who became one of the most important figures in the early development of Virginia. He helped establish Virginia’s tobacco industry and married Pocahontas in 1614, contributing to a period of improved relations between the English and the Powhatan Confederacy. His legacy is closely tied to the economic growth of Jamestown, the colonization of Virginia, and the complex history of English-Indigenous relations in early America. View Bio John Rolfe John Winthrop (1588–1649) was an English Puritan leader who helped establish the Massachusetts Bay Colony and served as its governor for much of its early history. In 1630, he led a large group of Puritan settlers to New England as part of the Great Migration, seeking to establish a religious community based on Puritan principles. As governor, Winthrop shaped the colony's government and society, leaving a lasting legacy as one of the most influential leaders in early New England. View Bio John Winthrop Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) rose from humble beginnings as a runaway printer’s apprentice to become a leading writer, scientist, diplomat, and statesman whose influence shaped every stage of America’s founding. Through intellect, wit, and practical wisdom, he helped secure independence, unite the colonies, and design a constitutional republic that could endure. View Bio Benjamin Franklin Roger Sherman (1721–1793) was a Connecticut statesman and lawyer who played a central role in America’s founding and is the only person to sign all four key founding documents: the Continental Association, the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, and the U.S. Constitution. A delegate to both Continental Congresses and the Constitutional Convention, he later served in the first U.S. House of Representatives and Senate, shaping the early structure of the federal government. View Bio Roger Sherman Samuel Adams (1722–1803) was an American revolutionary, Founding Father, and political leader who became one of the most influential organizers of resistance to British rule. He helped mobilize opposition to British taxation, supported American independence, signed the Declaration of Independence, and later served as governor of Massachusetts. He opposed the ratification of the U.S. Constitution. View Bio Samuel Adams Reset Filter by Era Filter by Office 1 2 3 ... 18 1 ... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 ... 18 Search by Name

Daniel D. Tompkins Daniel D. Tompkins was a New York lawyer, jurist, politician, governor, and the sixth Vice President of the United States. He rose through New York's Democratic-Republican political establishment during the early republic and became particularly prominent for his leadership during the War of 1812. He served two terms as James Monroe's vice president but left office in poor health and died only three months afterward. Tompkins was born on June 21, 1774, in Scarsdale, New York, to Jonathan Griffin Tompkins and Sarah Ann Hyatt. He attended Columbia College, graduating in 1795, and subsequently studied law before being admitted to the New York bar in 1797. He established himself as a lawyer in New York City and married Hannah Minthorne in 1798, with whom he eventually had eight children. Tompkins entered politics as a Democratic-Republican and was elected to the New York State Assembly and later to the U.S. House of Representatives. He resigned from Congress before taking his seat and instead accepted an appointment as an associate justice of the New York Supreme Court in 1804. His political rise continued when he was elected governor of New York in 1807, defeating the incumbent Morgan Lewis. As governor, Tompkins became one of the leading supporters of the War of 1812. He worked extensively to organize New York's defenses and used his personal credit to help finance military expenditures when federal and state funds were insufficient. His wartime leadership strengthened his national reputation, and in 1816 James Monroe selected him as his running mate. Tompkins was elected vice president in 1816 and reelected in 1820, presiding over the Senate throughout Monroe's two terms. Tompkins left the vice presidency on March 4, 1825, but his retirement was troubled by serious financial and health difficulties. He had personally borrowed and advanced large sums during the War of 1812 and spent years attempting to obtain reimbursement from the federal government, while his health deteriorated because of long-term alcohol abuse and other ailments. Tompkins died on June 11, 1825, at his home on Staten Island, only 99 days after leaving the vice presidency. Tompkins is remembered particularly for his service as governor during the War of 1812 and for his efforts to finance New York's military defense. His vice presidency was comparatively quiet, but his two terms established a precedent for a vice president serving across two full presidential terms. Tompkinsville on Staten Island, which developed around land associated with him and his family, preserves his name. Vice President, Governor, Representative

Levi Morton Levi Parsons Morton was a businessman, banker, diplomat, congressman, governor of New York, and the twenty-second vice president. He built his fortune through the banking business in New York and became an important Republican political figure. His long public career eventually carried him from the House of Representatives and diplomatic service to the vice presidency under Benjamin Harrison and later the governorship of New York. Morton was born on May 16, 1824, in Shoreham, Vermont, to Daniel Oliver Morton, a Congregationalist minister, and Lucretia Parsons. He grew up in Vermont and Massachusetts and received a common-school education. Rather than attending college, he entered the business world, eventually becoming a successful merchant and later moving into banking. Morton moved to New York City and established the banking firm Morton, Bliss & Co. He became increasingly involved in Republican politics and was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1878. He served two terms and became a prominent Republican fundraiser and political organizer. In 1880, President James Garfield offered Morton the position of secretary of the navy, but Morton instead declined and was appointed minister to France in 1881. Morton served as U.S. minister to France from 1881 to 1885, where he represented the United States during the construction and presentation of the Statue of Liberty. He returned to New York and became a major figure in Republican politics. In 1888, Benjamin Harrison selected Morton as his vice-presidential running mate. Harrison and Morton defeated the Democratic ticket of Grover Cleveland and Allen G. Thurman, although Cleveland won the popular vote. As vice president, Morton presided over the Senate from 1889 to 1893. One significant issue during his tenure was the proposed Federal Elections Bill, sometimes called the Lodge Bill, which sought to strengthen federal oversight of congressional elections. Morton supported the measure, but it ultimately failed in the Senate. Harrison and Morton lost their 1892 reelection campaign to Grover Cleveland and Adlai Stevenson. After leaving the vice presidency, Morton remained active in Republican politics and was elected governor of New York in 1894. He served from 1895 to 1896 and then retired from elected office. He remained a prominent businessman and civic figure for the rest of his life. Morton died on his ninety-sixth birthday, May 16, 1920, in Rhinebeck, New York. Morton's legacy encompasses business, diplomacy, Republican politics, and public administration. His diplomatic career placed him directly alongside the American effort surrounding the Statue of Liberty, while his later service as governor made him one of New York's most prominent Republican leaders. His unusually long life—nearly ninety-six years—allowed him to witness enormous changes in American political and economic life. Vice President, Governor, Representative

James Buchanan James Buchanan, the 15th President of the United States, was born on April 23, 1791, in Cove Gap, Pennsylvania, and served as president from 1857 to 1861. A lifelong Democrat and experienced statesman, Buchanan spent much of his career in Congress and the diplomatic service before reaching the presidency. His administration was dominated by the growing sectional crisis over slavery, particularly the struggle over whether slavery would expand into the western territories. Buchanan believed strongly in preserving the Union and maintaining constitutional government, but his unwillingness to confront the expansion of slavery and his support for the pro-slavery position during the crisis contributed to his reputation as one of the weakest presidents in American history. Buchanan was born into a prosperous Irish-American family in rural Pennsylvania, the second of eleven children of James Buchanan Sr. and Elizabeth Speer Buchanan. His father was a successful farmer and merchant who had immigrated from Ireland, and the family later moved to Mercersburg, where Buchanan spent much of his youth. He attended Dickinson College in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, graduating in 1809 and studying law afterward. Buchanan was admitted to the Pennsylvania bar in 1812 and quickly established himself as a successful lawyer. Although he was raised in a Presbyterian household, he never married and remained the only U.S. president who was a lifelong bachelor. Buchanan entered politics as a Federalist and was elected to the Pennsylvania House of Representatives in 1814. He was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1820 and served there for five terms, gradually shifting toward the Democratic Party as the political system reorganized around Andrew Jackson. Buchanan became a prominent supporter of President Jackson and served as U.S. minister to Russia from 1832 to 1833 before entering the Senate in 1834. He became one of the Democratic Party's leading statesmen, serving as chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee and later as Secretary of State under President James K. Polk from 1845 to 1849. He subsequently served as minister to Great Britain from 1853 to 1856 under President Franklin Pierce. His long diplomatic and political career made him one of the most experienced men ever elected president. Buchanan became president in March 1857, entering office as the sectional conflict over slavery was rapidly intensifying. He supported the controversial Dred Scott decision and argued that the question of slavery in the territories should be settled according to constitutional principles rather than congressional restriction. His administration became deeply involved in the struggle over the Lecompton Constitution in Kansas, which sought to admit Kansas as a slave state despite widespread opposition among Kansans. Buchanan supported the constitution, bringing him into conflict with fellow Democrat Stephen A. Douglas and dividing his own party. As sectional tensions worsened following John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry in 1859 and Abraham Lincoln's election in 1860, Buchanan maintained that secession was unconstitutional but also argued that the federal government lacked clear constitutional authority to coerce a seceding state. By the end of his presidency, several Southern states had seceded and the nation was on the verge of civil war. After leaving office on March 4, 1861, Buchanan retired to his estate, Wheatland, near Lancaster, Pennsylvania. He defended his presidential record in his 1866 memoir, Mr. Buchanan's Administration on the Eve of the Rebellion , arguing that he had acted according to the Constitution and that responsibility for the Civil War lay primarily with the sectional forces that had divided the country. He remained publicly interested in national affairs but largely withdrew from political life. Buchanan lived through the Civil War and saw the Union preserved under Abraham Lincoln, although he continued to maintain that he had acted correctly during the secession crisis. Buchanan died at Wheatland on June 1, 1868, at the age of 77, and was buried in Woodward Hill Cemetery in Lancaster, Pennsylvania. His legacy has been overwhelmingly shaped by his failure to prevent the country from descending into civil war and, particularly, by his administration's handling of the slavery question and secession crisis. Historians have generally criticized his belief that constitutional principles required him to protect slavery where it was legally established while simultaneously leaving the federal government without an effective means of stopping secession. Although Buchanan possessed extraordinary political and diplomatic experience, his presidency demonstrated the limitations of political compromise when the fundamental conflict over slavery had become irreconcilable. He is therefore commonly remembered as the president whose administration immediately preceded the Civil War and as one of the most consequential failures of presidential leadership in American history. President, Sec. of State, Senator, Representative

Colonial Era Chapter 3: Intercolonial Wars 1675 ― 1763 First Intercolonial War 1675-1702 Second Intercolonial War 1702-1727 Third Intercolonial War 1727-1749 Fourth Intercolonial War 1749-1763 Nova Britannia 1603 ― 1675 Previous Chapter Join or Die 1763 ― 1775 Next Chapter Colonial Era Sponsors In Grateful Recognition Patrons of the Past: (Sponsoring all nine Eras) Doug Shubert Adam Shubert Cathy Gillespie Sponsors of the Colonial Era: Bernie Frischer Sponsor an Era Documents Filter by Type Filter by Author Reset Filter by Era Master Index Read Document 04/17/1492 The formal agreement between Christopher Columbus and the Catholic Monarchs, outlining the terms of his voyage, including titles, governance, and a share of profits from any lands discovered. It provides a primary record of how Spain officially authorized and incentivized overseas exploration, establishing Columbus’s authority and the framework for his expeditions. Ferdinand of Aragon Capitulations of Santa Fe Read Document 04/30/1492 Issued by Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, the charter grants Christopher Columbus hereditary titles of Admiral of the Ocean Sea, Viceroy, and Governor over discovered lands, along with a share of profits. It establishes a legal and economic framework for exploration, showing how the Spanish Crown incentivized expansion through private enterprise while maintaining authority over commerce, territory, and governance. Ferdinand of Aragon Privileges Granted to Columbus Read Document 08/03/1492 Columbus sailed west under the Spanish Crown seeking a route to Asia, making landfall in the Bahamas on 12 October 1492 and initiating sustained contact between Europe and the Americas. He explored Cuba and Hispaniola and founded the short-lived La Navidad. His 1492–1493 journal, the earliest detailed European account of the Caribbean, survives only through the abstracted transcription of Bartolomé de las Casas. Christopher Columbus Columbus' Diary of His First Voyage Read Document 02/15/1493 Columbus’s letter announcing the results of his first voyage was published across Europe, describing the islands he encountered, their peoples, and the vast potential for wealth and Christian expansion. Framing the discovery as a triumph for Spain, the letter promised new lands rich in resources and ripe for conversion, bolstering Spanish prestige and competition with rival European powers. Christopher Columbus Columbus' Letter of His First Voyage Read Document 05/04/1493 Issued in 1493, Pope Alexander VI grants Spain rights to lands “discovered” west of a line of longitude while recognizing prior Portuguese claims to lands east of it. Written in Latin, this bull established the principle that non-Christian lands could be claimed by European powers, forming the basis for future colonization of the Americas. Pope Alexander VI Inter caetera Read Document 06/07/1494 An agreement between Spain and Portugal, mediated by the Pope, that divided newly discovered lands outside Europe along a meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands. This treaty granted Spain rights to most of the Americas while Portugal secured control over Africa, Asia, and later Brazil, shaping the course of global empire. Pope Alexander VI Treaty of Tordesillas Read Document 03/05/1496 Venetian explorer John Cabot, sailing under commission from England’s Henry VII, made landfall on the coast of North America, likely Newfoundland, on June 24, becoming the first known European since the Norse to reach the mainland. His voyage laid the foundation for England’s territorial claims in the New World, shaping the future of English colonization. Henry VII John Cabot's First Patent Read Document 05/10/1497 Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine navigator working for Spain, claimed to have sailed on a 1497–1498 voyage along the coast of the New World, possibly reaching Central America, though the authenticity of this voyage remains disputed by historians. Amerigo Vespucci Amerigo Vespucci First Voyage Read Document 07/22/1497 The Spanish Crown issued royal instructions authorizing Christopher Columbus to promote permanent settlement on Hispaniola by distributing land and requiring colonists to cultivate crops and develop the island’s resources. This decree marked an early shift from exploration toward organized colonization and agricultural exploitation in Spain’s emerging American empire. Ferdinand of Aragon Decree to Cultivate American Colonies Read Document 03/05/1498 Second letters patent issued by Henry VII granting John Cabot authority to outfit up to six ships and return to newly discovered lands (February 3, 1498), expanding royal support for exploration while relying on private financing, after which Cabot departed later that year on a voyage whose date, route, and fate remain unknown, with his pension ending in 1499 suggesting he likely died during or shortly after the expedition. Henry VII John Cabot's Second Patent Read Document 1503 Mundus Novus is a letter, attributed to Amerigo Vespucci, describing his voyages to the newly encountered lands across the Atlantic. Written in Latin and first printed in 1503, it introduced European readers to the idea that these lands were not Asia, but a “New World” previously unknown to Europeans. The letter emphasizes the vast size, natural wealth, and distinct peoples of these territories, fueling curiosity and prompting further exploration. Amerigo Vespucci Mundus Novus Read Document 12/27/1512 Promulgated by King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Juana of Castile in Burgos, Spain; the first comprehensive legal code regulating Spanish conduct, labor obligations, living conditions, and religious instruction of Indigenous peoples in the Americas, initially on Hispaniola and later applied to Puerto Rico and Jamaica, establishing the Crown’s framework for colonial governance and the treatment of native populations. Ferdinand of Aragon The Laws of Burgos 1 2 3 ... 135 1 ... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 ... 135 Biographies Christopher Columbus (1451–1506) was a Genoese navigator who sailed under the Spanish Crown and completed four transatlantic voyages beginning in 1492. He is best known for making sustained European contact with the Americas while searching for a western sea route to Asia. His expeditions initiated the Columbian Exchange and Spanish colonization of the Caribbean, though his governance and treatment of Indigenous peoples remain deeply controversial. View Bio Christopher Columbus John Rolfe (c. 1585–1622) was an English colonist who became one of the most important figures in the early development of Virginia. He helped establish Virginia’s tobacco industry and married Pocahontas in 1614, contributing to a period of improved relations between the English and the Powhatan Confederacy. His legacy is closely tied to the economic growth of Jamestown, the colonization of Virginia, and the complex history of English-Indigenous relations in early America. View Bio John Rolfe John Winthrop (1588–1649) was an English Puritan leader who helped establish the Massachusetts Bay Colony and served as its governor for much of its early history. In 1630, he led a large group of Puritan settlers to New England as part of the Great Migration, seeking to establish a religious community based on Puritan principles. As governor, Winthrop shaped the colony's government and society, leaving a lasting legacy as one of the most influential leaders in early New England. View Bio John Winthrop Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) rose from humble beginnings as a runaway printer’s apprentice to become a leading writer, scientist, diplomat, and statesman whose influence shaped every stage of America’s founding. Through intellect, wit, and practical wisdom, he helped secure independence, unite the colonies, and design a constitutional republic that could endure. View Bio Benjamin Franklin Roger Sherman (1721–1793) was a Connecticut statesman and lawyer who played a central role in America’s founding and is the only person to sign all four key founding documents: the Continental Association, the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, and the U.S. Constitution. A delegate to both Continental Congresses and the Constitutional Convention, he later served in the first U.S. House of Representatives and Senate, shaping the early structure of the federal government. View Bio Roger Sherman Samuel Adams (1722–1803) was an American revolutionary, Founding Father, and political leader who became one of the most influential organizers of resistance to British rule. He helped mobilize opposition to British taxation, supported American independence, signed the Declaration of Independence, and later served as governor of Massachusetts. He opposed the ratification of the U.S. Constitution. View Bio Samuel Adams Reset Filter by Era Filter by Office 1 2 3 ... 18 1 ... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 ... 18 Search by Name

< Back Cathy Gillespie Advisor Cathy Gillespie has held numerous positions in government and politics including congressional chief of staff and member of the Presidents Commission on White house Fellows. In 2017 Cathy was appointed to the United States Semiquincentennial Commission (America 250), the commission established by Congress to provide for the celebration and commemoration of the 250th anniversary of the founding of the United States, in 2026. Cathy serves as CEO of the nonpartisan educational 501 (c)(3) Constituting America founded by Actress Janine Turner (Northern Exposure, Friday Night Lights, Cliffhanger) – and has served in this capacity since Constituting America’s founding in 2010. Constituting America’s mission is to utilize the culture and multi-‐media outreach such as music, film, internet and social media, to educate, engage and inspire America’s adults and students about the importance of the U.S. Constitution and the foundation it sets forth regarding our freedoms and rights. Cathy is active in a number of charitable organizations, having served on the Board of Visitors of Virginia State University, the board of Good Shepherd Housing and Family Services and the board of Bishop Ireton High School. Cathy is a graduate of Texas A&M University, and is married to former RNC Chair and Counselor to the President, Ed Gillespie. They live in Fairfax County, near George Washington's Mt. Vernon and have three children.

As Chief Attorney, you will oversee all operations to make sure everything the charity does is in accordance with the law and generally accepted practices. You will also be in charge with maintaining the legal status of the nonprofit on the state and federal level. < Back Chief Attorney Apply Now Job Type Volunteer About the Role As Chief Attorney, you will oversee all operations to make sure everything the charity does is in accordance with the law and generally accepted practices. You will also be in charge with maintaining the legal status of the nonprofit on the state and federal level. Requirements Law degree Prior experience in corporate law About the Company Amending America is an educational support services 501(c)(3) that specializes in American History, Civics, and Constitutional Law, and provides a variety of different resources for people to learn from including online courses, research projects, videos, and an extensive library of primary source documents. Apply Now

As Chief Moderator you are tasked with setting up and running online debates, encouraging participation in debates, reviewing mock bills on the Forum page and essays on the Essays page to make sure content is following site guidelines. You will also manage interactive socials such as Discord. < Back Chief Moderator Apply Now Job Type Volunteer About the Role As Chief Moderator you are tasked with setting up and running online debates, encouraging participation in debates, reviewing mock bills on the Forum page and essays on the Essays page to make sure content is following site guidelines. You will also manage interactive socials such as Discord. Requirements Experience with moderating online platforms and debates. Letter of Recommendation from an Employer of a relevant job. About the Company Amending America is an educational support services 501(c)(3) that specializes in American History, Civics, and Constitutional Law, and provides a variety of different resources for people to learn from including online courses, research projects, videos, and an extensive library of primary source documents. Apply Now

< Back Jack Miller Center Educational Nonprofit The Jack Miller Center is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization dedicated to reinvigorating education in America’s founding principles and history, an education vital to thoughtful and engaged citizenship. By building talent pipelines for university scholars of the American political tradition, the Jack Miller Center seeks to leverage the influence of its growing academic network into a stronger movement for civic education at every level.