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< Back CivX Now Educational Nonprofit iCivics is a 501(c)(3) working to inspire life-long civic engagement by providing high quality and engaging civics resources to teachers and students across our nation. We champion equitable, non-partisan civic education so the practice of democracy is learned by each new generation. CivXNow is a coalition of partners from diverse viewpoints working to create a culture shift that elevates civic education and engagement as a national priority in order to protect and strengthen America’s constitutional democracy. This includes building a shared commitment to ensure that all young people are prepared to assume their rights and responsibilities to participate in civic life and address the issues facing students, their families, and communities in our increasingly dynamic, polarized, and digital society. To achieve this goal, CivXNow advocates for bipartisan federal and state legislation that supports implementation of state and local policies that reimagine and deliver relevant, inclusive, and engaging K-12 civic learning, both in- and out-of-school.

Donald Trump Donald John Trump (1946-) was born on June 14, 1946, in Queens, New York, and became one of the most recognizable and controversial figures in modern American history. A businessman, television personality, and politician, Trump entered the presidency after decades of prominence in American real estate and popular culture. He served as the 45th president of the United States from 2017 to 2021 and, after losing the 2020 election, returned to the White House in 2025 as the 47th president, making him only the second American president after Grover Cleveland to serve nonconsecutive terms. His political career transformed the Republican Party and reshaped debates over immigration, trade, foreign policy, executive power, and the role of populism in American government. Trump grew up in a wealthy family in Queens, the fourth of five children born to Fred and Mary Trump and Mary Anne MacLeod Trump. His father was a successful real-estate developer who built a substantial business in New York City's outer boroughs, and Donald was exposed to the industry from an early age. After attending the Kew-Forest School and later the New York Military Academy, Trump studied at Fordham University before transferring to the University of Pennsylvania's Wharton School, where he graduated in 1968 with a degree in economics. His upbringing provided him with considerable financial advantages, but it also exposed him to the competitive world of New York real estate and helped shape the ambitious, aggressive personality that later became central to his public image. After graduating from college, Trump joined his father's real-estate business and gradually expanded his ambitions beyond the outer boroughs of New York. In 1971, he took control of the company, later renamed the Trump Organization, and concentrated on major projects in Manhattan, including the development of Trump Tower. He expanded into hotels, casinos, golf courses, entertainment, and licensing, turning the Trump name itself into a widely recognized brand. His business career included substantial successes as well as major financial difficulties, including several corporate bankruptcies involving his casino and hotel businesses. Trump also became a national celebrity through appearances in the media and, beginning in 2004, as the host of the reality television program The Apprentice , which further established his image as a powerful businessman and introduced him to millions of Americans. Trump entered presidential politics as a Republican and won the 2016 election against Democratic nominee Hillary Clinton, despite having no previous experience holding elected office or serving in government. His first presidency emphasized an "America First" agenda, including restrictions on immigration, renegotiation of trade relationships, tax cuts, deregulation, increased military spending, and a more confrontational approach toward China and other foreign competitors. He appointed three Supreme Court justices—Neil Gorsuch, Brett Kavanaugh, and Amy Coney Barrett—fundamentally shifting the Court's ideological balance. His administration also negotiated the United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement, pursued diplomatic agreements between Israel and several Arab states, and confronted North Korea and Iran. His presidency was marked by intense political conflict, two impeachments by the House of Representatives, the COVID-19 pandemic, and the highly disputed 2020 election, which Trump lost to Democrat Joe Biden. After leaving office in January 2021, Trump remained the dominant figure in the Republican Party and continued to hold rallies, endorse candidates, and challenge the direction of the Biden administration. He announced another presidential campaign in 2022 and ultimately defeated Democratic nominee Kamala Harris in the 2024 election, returning to office on January 20, 2025. His second presidency has continued many of the themes associated with his political movement, particularly immigration enforcement, tariffs and trade policy, deregulation, and an emphasis on American sovereignty and national interests.

< Back Jack Miller Center Educational Nonprofit The Jack Miller Center is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization dedicated to reinvigorating education in America’s founding principles and history, an education vital to thoughtful and engaged citizenship. By building talent pipelines for university scholars of the American political tradition, the Jack Miller Center seeks to leverage the influence of its growing academic network into a stronger movement for civic education at every level.

George Washington George Washington was born on February 22, 1732, at Popes Creek Plantation in Westmoreland County, Virginia, and grew up within the Virginia gentry despite having little formal education. He developed practical skills through surveying and frontier experience, becoming the official surveyor of Culpeper County in 1749 at age seventeen. His entry into public service came in 1753 when he was sent to warn French forces in the Ohio Valley to withdraw. During the French and Indian War, Washington commanded troops at Fort Necessity in 1754 and served under General Edward Braddock in 1755, gaining valuable military experience. By 1758, he had risen to command Virginia’s provincial forces before resigning his commission. In 1759, Washington married Martha Dandridge Custis and took responsibility for managing Mount Vernon, establishing himself as a leading Virginia planter. Throughout the 1760s and early 1770s, he served in the Virginia House of Burgesses and became increasingly opposed to British imperial policies. He was elected to the First Continental Congress in 1774 and the Second Continental Congress in 1775 as tensions with Britain escalated. On June 15, 1775, Congress unanimously appointed him commander-in-chief of the Continental Army. He formally assumed command on July 3, 1775, at Cambridge, Massachusetts. Washington led the Continental Army for eight difficult years, enduring shortages, political interference, and repeated military setbacks. Early defeats in New York in 1776 were followed by critical victories at Trenton and Princeton that preserved the revolutionary cause. His army survived the harsh winter at Valley Forge in 1777–1778 and emerged more disciplined and professional. In 1781, Washington coordinated American and French forces in the decisive victory at Yorktown, effectively ending major fighting in the war. On December 23, 1783, he resigned his commission before Congress, reinforcing the principle of civilian control of the military. Washington returned to national leadership in 1787 as the presiding officer of the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia and signed the Constitution on September 17, 1787. In 1789, he was unanimously elected the first president of the United States and served two terms. As president, he organized the executive branch, supported the ratification of the Bill of Rights, and pursued a policy of neutrality in foreign affairs. Declining a third term, he issued his Farewell Address in 1796, warning against political factions and permanent alliances. George Washington died at Mount Vernon on December 14, 1799, remembered as the central figure in the founding of the American republic.

Modern Era Chapter 25: War on Terror 2001 ― 2017 Compassionate Conservatism 2001-2009 Change We Can Believe In 2009-2017 End of History 1989 ― 2001 Previous Chapter Crisis of Populism 2017 ― Today Next Chapter Modern Era Sponsors In Grateful Recognition "Patrons of the Past" (Sponsoring all nine Eras) Doug Shubert Adam Shubert Cathy Gillespie Sponsor an Era Documents Filter by Type Filter by Author Reset Filter by Era Master Index Read Document 04/17/1492 The formal agreement between Christopher Columbus and the Catholic Monarchs, outlining the terms of his voyage, including titles, governance, and a share of profits from any lands discovered. It provides a primary record of how Spain officially authorized and incentivized overseas exploration, establishing Columbus’s authority and the framework for his expeditions. Ferdinand of Aragon Capitulations of Santa Fe Read Document 04/30/1492 Issued by Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, the charter grants Christopher Columbus hereditary titles of Admiral of the Ocean Sea, Viceroy, and Governor over discovered lands, along with a share of profits. It establishes a legal and economic framework for exploration, showing how the Spanish Crown incentivized expansion through private enterprise while maintaining authority over commerce, territory, and governance. Ferdinand of Aragon Privileges Granted to Columbus Read Document 08/03/1492 Columbus sailed west under the Spanish Crown seeking a route to Asia, making landfall in the Bahamas on 12 October 1492 and initiating sustained contact between Europe and the Americas. He explored Cuba and Hispaniola and founded the short-lived La Navidad. His 1492–1493 journal, the earliest detailed European account of the Caribbean, survives only through the abstracted transcription of Bartolomé de las Casas. Christopher Columbus Columbus' Diary of His First Voyage Read Document 02/15/1493 Columbus’s letter announcing the results of his first voyage was published across Europe, describing the islands he encountered, their peoples, and the vast potential for wealth and Christian expansion. Framing the discovery as a triumph for Spain, the letter promised new lands rich in resources and ripe for conversion, bolstering Spanish prestige and competition with rival European powers. Christopher Columbus Columbus' Letter of His First Voyage Read Document 05/04/1493 Issued in 1493, Pope Alexander VI grants Spain rights to lands “discovered” west of a line of longitude while recognizing prior Portuguese claims to lands east of it. Written in Latin, this bull established the principle that non-Christian lands could be claimed by European powers, forming the basis for future colonization of the Americas. Pope Alexander VI Inter caetera Read Document 06/07/1494 An agreement between Spain and Portugal, mediated by the Pope, that divided newly discovered lands outside Europe along a meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands. This treaty granted Spain rights to most of the Americas while Portugal secured control over Africa, Asia, and later Brazil, shaping the course of global empire. Pope Alexander VI Treaty of Tordesillas Read Document 03/05/1496 Venetian explorer John Cabot, sailing under commission from England’s Henry VII, made landfall on the coast of North America, likely Newfoundland, on June 24, becoming the first known European since the Norse to reach the mainland. His voyage laid the foundation for England’s territorial claims in the New World, shaping the future of English colonization. Henry VII John Cabot's First Patent Read Document 05/10/1497 Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine navigator working for Spain, claimed to have sailed on a 1497–1498 voyage along the coast of the New World, possibly reaching Central America, though the authenticity of this voyage remains disputed by historians. Amerigo Vespucci Amerigo Vespucci First Voyage Read Document 07/22/1497 The Spanish Crown issued royal instructions authorizing Christopher Columbus to promote permanent settlement on Hispaniola by distributing land and requiring colonists to cultivate crops and develop the island’s resources. This decree marked an early shift from exploration toward organized colonization and agricultural exploitation in Spain’s emerging American empire. Ferdinand of Aragon Decree to Cultivate American Colonies Read Document 03/05/1498 Second letters patent issued by Henry VII granting John Cabot authority to outfit up to six ships and return to newly discovered lands (February 3, 1498), expanding royal support for exploration while relying on private financing, after which Cabot departed later that year on a voyage whose date, route, and fate remain unknown, with his pension ending in 1499 suggesting he likely died during or shortly after the expedition. Henry VII John Cabot's Second Patent Read Document 1503 Mundus Novus is a letter, attributed to Amerigo Vespucci, describing his voyages to the newly encountered lands across the Atlantic. Written in Latin and first printed in 1503, it introduced European readers to the idea that these lands were not Asia, but a “New World” previously unknown to Europeans. The letter emphasizes the vast size, natural wealth, and distinct peoples of these territories, fueling curiosity and prompting further exploration. Amerigo Vespucci Mundus Novus Read Document 12/27/1512 Promulgated by King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Juana of Castile in Burgos, Spain; the first comprehensive legal code regulating Spanish conduct, labor obligations, living conditions, and religious instruction of Indigenous peoples in the Americas, initially on Hispaniola and later applied to Puerto Rico and Jamaica, establishing the Crown’s framework for colonial governance and the treatment of native populations. Ferdinand of Aragon The Laws of Burgos 1 2 3 ... 135 1 ... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 ... 135 Biographies Christopher Columbus Christopher Columbus (1451–1506) was a Genoese navigator who sailed under the Spanish Crown and completed four transatlantic voyages beginning in 1492. He is best known for making sustained European contact with the Americas while searching for a western sea route to Asia. His expeditions initiated the Columbian Exchange and Spanish colonization of the Caribbean, though his governance and treatment of Indigenous peoples remain deeply controversial. View Bio John Rolfe John Rolfe (c. 1585–1622) was an English colonist who became one of the most important figures in the early development of Virginia. He helped establish Virginia’s tobacco industry and married Pocahontas in 1614, contributing to a period of improved relations between the English and the Powhatan Confederacy. His legacy is closely tied to the economic growth of Jamestown, the colonization of Virginia, and the complex history of English-Indigenous relations in early America. View Bio John Winthrop John Winthrop (1588–1649) was an English Puritan leader who helped establish the Massachusetts Bay Colony and served as its governor for much of its early history. In 1630, he led a large group of Puritan settlers to New England as part of the Great Migration, seeking to establish a religious community based on Puritan principles. As governor, Winthrop shaped the colony's government and society, leaving a lasting legacy as one of the most influential leaders in early New England. View Bio Benjamin Franklin Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) rose from humble beginnings as a runaway printer’s apprentice to become a leading writer, scientist, diplomat, and statesman whose influence shaped every stage of America’s founding. Through intellect, wit, and practical wisdom, he helped secure independence, unite the colonies, and design a constitutional republic that could endure. View Bio Roger Sherman Roger Sherman (1721–1793) was a Connecticut statesman and lawyer who played a central role in America’s founding and is the only person to sign all four key founding documents: the Continental Association, the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, and the U.S. Constitution. A delegate to both Continental Congresses and the Constitutional Convention, he later served in the first U.S. House of Representatives and Senate, shaping the early structure of the federal government. View Bio Samuel Adams Samuel Adams (1722–1803) was an American revolutionary, Founding Father, and political leader who became one of the most influential organizers of resistance to British rule. He helped mobilize opposition to British taxation, supported American independence, signed the Declaration of Independence, and later served as governor of Massachusetts. He opposed the ratification of the U.S. Constitution. View Bio Reset Filter by Era Tags Filter by Office Tags 1 2 3 ... 9 1 ... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ... 9

Benjamin Harrison Benjamin Harrison was the twenty-third president of the United States, serving from 1889 to 1893. Born on August 20, 1833, in North Bend, Ohio, he came from one of the most distinguished political families in early American history. His great-grandfather, Benjamin Harrison V, had been a signer of the Declaration of Independence, while his grandfather, William Henry Harrison, had served as the nation’s ninth president. Yet Benjamin Harrison established his own reputation as a lawyer, Union Army officer, senator, and Republican politician. A reserved and highly formal man, Harrison was sometimes mocked for his short stature and nicknamed “Little Ben,” but he possessed considerable intelligence, determination, and political ability. His presidency came during a period of rapid industrialization and national expansion, and his administration was marked by high tariffs, expanded federal spending, veterans’ pensions, conservation, civil-rights efforts, and an increasingly assertive American foreign policy. Harrison grew up on his family’s farm near the Ohio River in North Bend, surrounded by the legacy of his grandfather’s political career but raised in a relatively rural and disciplined environment. As a boy, he attended a local one-room schoolhouse and later studied at Farmers’ College near Cincinnati before transferring to Miami University in Oxford, Ohio. He graduated in 1852 near the top of his class and developed a reputation as an avid reader and capable public speaker. While attending Miami, he met Caroline Lavinia Scott, whom he married in 1853. Harrison subsequently studied law in Cincinnati and was admitted to the Ohio bar in 1854. Shortly afterward, he and Caroline moved to Indianapolis, Indiana, where he began building a legal career and a new political life. His upbringing, education, Presbyterian faith, and strong sense of family duty helped shape the reserved and serious personality that characterized him throughout his public career. Harrison quickly became involved with the newly formed Republican Party, supporting John C. Frémont in 1856 and Abraham Lincoln in 1860. He entered local politics and became Indianapolis city attorney in 1857, while also serving as secretary of the Indiana Republican State Central Committee and working as a reporter of decisions for the Indiana Supreme Court. When the Civil War began, Harrison initially hesitated to enlist because of his responsibilities to his family, but in 1862 he joined the Union Army and became colonel of the 70th Indiana Volunteer Infantry. He served during the Atlanta Campaign and other major operations, earning recognition for his leadership and eventually receiving a brevet promotion to brigadier general. After the war, Harrison returned to Indianapolis and resumed his legal career while becoming one of Indiana’s most prominent Republicans. He unsuccessfully sought the governorship in 1876, supported the presidential campaigns of Rutherford B. Hayes and James A. Garfield, and in 1881 was chosen by the Indiana legislature to represent the state in the United States Senate. As senator, he supported veterans’ pensions, protective tariffs, conservation, naval modernization, and western statehood, while notably opposing the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882. Harrison won the presidency in 1888 by defeating incumbent President Grover Cleveland, despite receiving fewer popular votes, and took office on March 4, 1889. His administration pursued an ambitious Republican program centered on protective tariffs, economic development, veterans’ benefits, and an expanded national government. The McKinley Tariff of 1890 substantially increased import duties, while the Sherman Silver Purchase Act increased the federal government’s use of silver. Harrison also signed the Sherman Antitrust Act, one of the first major federal attempts to restrain monopolistic business practices, and approved the Dependent and Disability Pension Act, which greatly expanded federal pensions for Civil War veterans and their dependents. His administration promoted conservation, setting aside more than 13 million acres for national forest reserves, and three major national parks—Sequoia, General Grant, and Yosemite—were established during his presidency. Harrison also pursued an assertive foreign policy: the First Pan-American Conference met in Washington in 1889, the United States strengthened its position in the Pacific, and Harrison supported a treaty to annex Hawaii, although the treaty was later withdrawn by Cleveland. He also supported federal efforts to protect the voting rights of African Americans and appointed Frederick Douglass as minister to Haiti. After leaving office in 1893, Harrison returned to Indianapolis and resumed his legal career, becoming an increasingly respected elder statesman. His wife, Caroline, had died in the White House in October 1892 after suffering from tuberculosis, and in 1896 Harrison married Mary Scott Lord Dimmick, his late wife’s niece and former secretary. He remained active in public affairs and continued practicing law, eventually representing the Republic of Venezuela in a boundary dispute with Great Britain before an international tribunal. Harrison also wrote and lectured on constitutional and political subjects, drawing upon his experience in government and his longstanding interest in law. Though he had lost his reelection campaign to Grover Cleveland in 1892, his administration had left a substantial mark on federal policy. The legislation of his presidency demonstrated the Republican Party’s late nineteenth-century commitment to protective tariffs, veterans’ benefits, economic expansion, conservation, and a stronger American presence in international affairs. Benjamin Harrison died in Indianapolis on March 13, 1901, at the age of sixty-seven and was buried at Crown Hill Cemetery beside Caroline. His presidency has sometimes been overshadowed by those of the more famous presidents who preceded and followed him, particularly Grover Cleveland, but historians increasingly recognize the significance of his administration. Harrison presided over a period in which the federal government expanded its role in economic regulation, veterans’ welfare, conservation, and foreign affairs. The Sherman Antitrust Act established an important precedent for later federal efforts to regulate concentrated economic power, while his conservation policies helped lay foundations for the modern national forest and national park systems. His support for African American voting rights also placed his administration among the more assertive post-Reconstruction efforts to enforce the constitutional rights of Black Americans, even though those efforts ultimately failed to halt the retreat from federal civil-rights enforcement in the South. Harrison’s legacy is therefore that of a serious, capable, and often underestimated president whose administration helped define the expanding role of the federal government at the beginning of the modern industrial age.

As Chief Marketer you are tasked with promoting the nonprofit via socials such as Youtube and developing campaigns to increase awareness and accessibility to more people. < Back Chief Marketer Apply Now Job Type Volunteer About the Role As Chief Marketer you are tasked with promoting the nonprofit via socials such as Youtube and developing campaigns to increase awareness and accessibility to more people. Requirements Relevant prior experience About the Company Amending America is an educational support services 501(c)(3) that specializes in American History, Civics, and Constitutional Law, and provides a variety of different resources for people to learn from including online courses, research projects, videos, and an extensive library of primary source documents. Apply Now

John Rolfe John Rolfe was an English colonist, planter, and agricultural pioneer best known for helping establish Virginia’s tobacco industry and for his marriage to Pocahontas. Born in Norfolk, England, around 1585, Rolfe traveled to Virginia as part of the settlement at Jamestown and became an important figure in the colony’s early development. His successful cultivation of a milder strain of tobacco created a valuable export that helped make Virginia economically viable. Rolfe also played a significant role in relations between the English colonists and the Powhatan Confederacy through his marriage to Pocahontas, although their relationship took place within the broader and often difficult context of English expansion and Indigenous dispossession. Little is known about Rolfe’s early childhood and education. He was born in Heacham, Norfolk, to John Rolfe and Dorothy Mason, members of a prosperous family involved in commerce and local affairs. As a young man, Rolfe likely received an education appropriate to his social position and developed an interest in trade and agriculture. By adulthood, he had become involved in England’s expanding efforts to establish colonies and commercial enterprises overseas. In 1609, he joined the Third Supply expedition to Virginia with his first wife, Sarah Hacker, and their infant daughter, intending to seek new opportunities in the New World. Rolfe became an important figure in the development of the Virginia colony after arriving at Jamestown in 1610. He experimented with growing tobacco, eventually cultivating a strain derived from Caribbean tobacco that was more appealing to European consumers than the harsher native varieties already found in Virginia. By around 1612, he had developed a successful method of producing tobacco for export, and the crop quickly became Virginia’s most important commercial product. The success of tobacco transformed Jamestown from a struggling settlement into a profitable English colony and encouraged further immigration and expansion. Rolfe also participated in Virginia’s colonial government and economic development, helping establish an agricultural and commercial foundation upon which the colony would grow. In 1614, Rolfe married Pocahontas, the daughter of Powhatan paramount chief Wahunsenacawh, commonly known as Powhatan. Their marriage was presented by the English as contributing to a period of peace between the English settlement and the Powhatan Confederacy, although the relationship between the two societies remained complicated. Pocahontas traveled with Rolfe to England in 1616, where she was presented as a symbol of the potential success of the Virginia colony. While preparing to return to Virginia in 1617, Pocahontas became seriously ill and died at Gravesend, England, at about twenty-one years of age. Rolfe later returned to Virginia, where he continued his work as a planter and colonial official. He died in Virginia in March 1622, shortly after the outbreak of the Powhatan uprising that began with the attack of March 22, 1622. Rolfe’s legacy is closely connected to both the economic development of Virginia and the history of Pocahontas. His cultivation of commercially successful tobacco helped create the colony’s first major export industry and contributed to Virginia’s long-term survival and expansion. At the same time, the tobacco economy encouraged the rapid acquisition of Indigenous lands and eventually became deeply dependent on unfree labor, including African slavery. His marriage to Pocahontas has consequently become one of the most famous relationships in early American history, though later popular culture often romanticized it and obscured the political and colonial circumstances surrounding their lives. Rolfe is therefore remembered both as a central figure in the early economic development of Virginia and as a participant in the complicated encounter between English colonization and the Indigenous peoples of the Chesapeake.

World Wars Era Chapter 18: Roaring Twenties 1921 ― 1929 Return to Normalcy 1921-1923 Keep Cool 1923-1929 World War I 1913 ― 1921 Previous Chapter Great Depression 1929 ― 1941 Next Chapter World Wars Era Sponsors In Grateful Recognition "Patrons of the Past" (Sponsoring all nine Eras) Doug Shubert Adam Shubert Cathy Gillespie Sponsor an Era Documents Filter by Type Filter by Author Reset Filter by Era Master Index Read Document 04/17/1492 The formal agreement between Christopher Columbus and the Catholic Monarchs, outlining the terms of his voyage, including titles, governance, and a share of profits from any lands discovered. It provides a primary record of how Spain officially authorized and incentivized overseas exploration, establishing Columbus’s authority and the framework for his expeditions. Ferdinand of Aragon Capitulations of Santa Fe Read Document 04/30/1492 Issued by Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, the charter grants Christopher Columbus hereditary titles of Admiral of the Ocean Sea, Viceroy, and Governor over discovered lands, along with a share of profits. It establishes a legal and economic framework for exploration, showing how the Spanish Crown incentivized expansion through private enterprise while maintaining authority over commerce, territory, and governance. Ferdinand of Aragon Privileges Granted to Columbus Read Document 08/03/1492 Columbus sailed west under the Spanish Crown seeking a route to Asia, making landfall in the Bahamas on 12 October 1492 and initiating sustained contact between Europe and the Americas. He explored Cuba and Hispaniola and founded the short-lived La Navidad. His 1492–1493 journal, the earliest detailed European account of the Caribbean, survives only through the abstracted transcription of Bartolomé de las Casas. Christopher Columbus Columbus' Diary of His First Voyage Read Document 02/15/1493 Columbus’s letter announcing the results of his first voyage was published across Europe, describing the islands he encountered, their peoples, and the vast potential for wealth and Christian expansion. Framing the discovery as a triumph for Spain, the letter promised new lands rich in resources and ripe for conversion, bolstering Spanish prestige and competition with rival European powers. Christopher Columbus Columbus' Letter of His First Voyage Read Document 05/04/1493 Issued in 1493, Pope Alexander VI grants Spain rights to lands “discovered” west of a line of longitude while recognizing prior Portuguese claims to lands east of it. Written in Latin, this bull established the principle that non-Christian lands could be claimed by European powers, forming the basis for future colonization of the Americas. Pope Alexander VI Inter caetera Read Document 06/07/1494 An agreement between Spain and Portugal, mediated by the Pope, that divided newly discovered lands outside Europe along a meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands. This treaty granted Spain rights to most of the Americas while Portugal secured control over Africa, Asia, and later Brazil, shaping the course of global empire. Pope Alexander VI Treaty of Tordesillas Read Document 03/05/1496 Venetian explorer John Cabot, sailing under commission from England’s Henry VII, made landfall on the coast of North America, likely Newfoundland, on June 24, becoming the first known European since the Norse to reach the mainland. His voyage laid the foundation for England’s territorial claims in the New World, shaping the future of English colonization. Henry VII John Cabot's First Patent Read Document 05/10/1497 Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine navigator working for Spain, claimed to have sailed on a 1497–1498 voyage along the coast of the New World, possibly reaching Central America, though the authenticity of this voyage remains disputed by historians. Amerigo Vespucci Amerigo Vespucci First Voyage Read Document 07/22/1497 The Spanish Crown issued royal instructions authorizing Christopher Columbus to promote permanent settlement on Hispaniola by distributing land and requiring colonists to cultivate crops and develop the island’s resources. This decree marked an early shift from exploration toward organized colonization and agricultural exploitation in Spain’s emerging American empire. Ferdinand of Aragon Decree to Cultivate American Colonies Read Document 03/05/1498 Second letters patent issued by Henry VII granting John Cabot authority to outfit up to six ships and return to newly discovered lands (February 3, 1498), expanding royal support for exploration while relying on private financing, after which Cabot departed later that year on a voyage whose date, route, and fate remain unknown, with his pension ending in 1499 suggesting he likely died during or shortly after the expedition. Henry VII John Cabot's Second Patent Read Document 1503 Mundus Novus is a letter, attributed to Amerigo Vespucci, describing his voyages to the newly encountered lands across the Atlantic. Written in Latin and first printed in 1503, it introduced European readers to the idea that these lands were not Asia, but a “New World” previously unknown to Europeans. The letter emphasizes the vast size, natural wealth, and distinct peoples of these territories, fueling curiosity and prompting further exploration. Amerigo Vespucci Mundus Novus Read Document 12/27/1512 Promulgated by King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Juana of Castile in Burgos, Spain; the first comprehensive legal code regulating Spanish conduct, labor obligations, living conditions, and religious instruction of Indigenous peoples in the Americas, initially on Hispaniola and later applied to Puerto Rico and Jamaica, establishing the Crown’s framework for colonial governance and the treatment of native populations. Ferdinand of Aragon The Laws of Burgos 1 2 3 ... 135 1 ... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 ... 135 Biographies Christopher Columbus Christopher Columbus (1451–1506) was a Genoese navigator who sailed under the Spanish Crown and completed four transatlantic voyages beginning in 1492. He is best known for making sustained European contact with the Americas while searching for a western sea route to Asia. His expeditions initiated the Columbian Exchange and Spanish colonization of the Caribbean, though his governance and treatment of Indigenous peoples remain deeply controversial. View Bio John Rolfe John Rolfe (c. 1585–1622) was an English colonist who became one of the most important figures in the early development of Virginia. He helped establish Virginia’s tobacco industry and married Pocahontas in 1614, contributing to a period of improved relations between the English and the Powhatan Confederacy. His legacy is closely tied to the economic growth of Jamestown, the colonization of Virginia, and the complex history of English-Indigenous relations in early America. View Bio John Winthrop John Winthrop (1588–1649) was an English Puritan leader who helped establish the Massachusetts Bay Colony and served as its governor for much of its early history. In 1630, he led a large group of Puritan settlers to New England as part of the Great Migration, seeking to establish a religious community based on Puritan principles. As governor, Winthrop shaped the colony's government and society, leaving a lasting legacy as one of the most influential leaders in early New England. View Bio Benjamin Franklin Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) rose from humble beginnings as a runaway printer’s apprentice to become a leading writer, scientist, diplomat, and statesman whose influence shaped every stage of America’s founding. Through intellect, wit, and practical wisdom, he helped secure independence, unite the colonies, and design a constitutional republic that could endure. View Bio Roger Sherman Roger Sherman (1721–1793) was a Connecticut statesman and lawyer who played a central role in America’s founding and is the only person to sign all four key founding documents: the Continental Association, the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, and the U.S. Constitution. A delegate to both Continental Congresses and the Constitutional Convention, he later served in the first U.S. House of Representatives and Senate, shaping the early structure of the federal government. View Bio Samuel Adams Samuel Adams (1722–1803) was an American revolutionary, Founding Father, and political leader who became one of the most influential organizers of resistance to British rule. He helped mobilize opposition to British taxation, supported American independence, signed the Declaration of Independence, and later served as governor of Massachusetts. He opposed the ratification of the U.S. Constitution. View Bio Reset Filter by Era Tags Filter by Office Tags 1 2 3 ... 9 1 ... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ... 9

< Back Katie Gorka Advisor Katie served in the first Trump Administration at the Department of Homeland Security (2017-2020). From 2020 to 2022 she served as Director for Civil Society at The Heritage Foundation, working with parents around the country to regain control over their children’s education. From 2009 to 2014, Katie served as executive director of the Westminster Institute, where she worked closely with law enforcement on combatting terrorism. She then continued that work with her husband, Dr. Sebastian Gorka, as president of Threat Knowledge Group, providing counter-terrorism training and expertise to the FBI, SO/LIC, JSOU, Special Operations Command and the Counter-Terrorism Technical Support Office (CTTSO). She is editor of the book, Fighting the Ideological War: Winning Strategies from Communism to Islamism , and co-author of the book NextGen Marxism: What It Is and How to Combat It . Follow her on Facebook @KatharineGorka Twitter @GorkaKatie

< Back Megan Krause Volunteer Megan Krause is an American Historical Researcher at Tarpeia. She recently graduated from St. Norbert College in De Pere, Wisconsin with a bachelor’s degree in Political Science and Theology and Religious Studies. She is most captivated by the Early Republic era and religious history. In her free time Megan enjoys experimenting with new recipes, walking the beaches of Lake Michigan, and playing with her two dogs, Finnigan and Ridley. She is excited to develop her research with Tarpeia because she firmly believes, “Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it (George Santayana).”

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