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As the Chief of Clientele you are tasked with reporting customer surveys, communicating with donors, and working with the Chiefs of HR and Quality on shared tasks. < Back Chief of Clientele Apply Now Job Type Volunteer About the Role As the Chief of Clientele you are tasked with reporting customer surveys, communicating with donors, and working with the Chiefs of HR and Quality on shared tasks. Requirements Prior relevant experience About the Company Amending America is an educational support services 501(c)(3) that specializes in American History, Civics, and Constitutional Law, and provides a variety of different resources for people to learn from including online courses, research projects, videos, and an extensive library of primary source documents. Apply Now

< Back Courtney Hartz Proctor Courtney Hartz is an Early American historian passionate about pre-revolutionary and revolutionary periods of American history. Her journey began at Lander University, where she studied history. Seeking to accomplish further academic goals, she pursued a master’s degree in history focusing on Early American history with a concentration in Indigenous Studies at the University of Nebraska-Kearney. In addition to her academic pursuits, Courtney started her career as an instructor at the University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point. Currently, she is an educator at IDEA Judson College Preparatory, where she teaches U.S. History and European History. She seeks to inspire critical thinking and foster a deep understanding of historical contexts among her students. Courtney is actively involved in historical research and endeavors to explore new methods to facilitate learning inside and outside the classroom to empower individuals to become informed, engaged, and thriving members of society through understanding the context of the past.

As Chief Attorney, you will oversee all operations to make sure everything the charity does is in accordance with the law and generally accepted practices. You will also be in charge with maintaining the legal status of the nonprofit on the state and federal level. < Back Chief Attorney Apply Now Job Type Volunteer About the Role As Chief Attorney, you will oversee all operations to make sure everything the charity does is in accordance with the law and generally accepted practices. You will also be in charge with maintaining the legal status of the nonprofit on the state and federal level. Requirements Law degree Prior experience in corporate law About the Company Amending America is an educational support services 501(c)(3) that specializes in American History, Civics, and Constitutional Law, and provides a variety of different resources for people to learn from including online courses, research projects, videos, and an extensive library of primary source documents. Apply Now

Antebellum Era Chapter 11: Manifest Destiny 1841 ― 1849 Tippecanoe & Tyler Too 1841-1845 Young Hickory 1845-1849 Common Man 1829 ― 1841 Previous Chapter Sectional Crisis 1849 ― 1860 Next Chapter Antebellum Era Sponsors In Grateful Recognition "Patrons of the Past" (Sponsoring all nine Eras) Doug Shubert Adam Shubert Cathy Gillespie Sponsor an Era Documents Filter by Type Filter by Author Reset Filter by Era Master Index Read Document 04/17/1492 The formal agreement between Christopher Columbus and the Catholic Monarchs, outlining the terms of his voyage, including titles, governance, and a share of profits from any lands discovered. It provides a primary record of how Spain officially authorized and incentivized overseas exploration, establishing Columbus’s authority and the framework for his expeditions. Ferdinand of Aragon Capitulations of Santa Fe Read Document 04/30/1492 Issued by Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, the charter grants Christopher Columbus hereditary titles of Admiral of the Ocean Sea, Viceroy, and Governor over discovered lands, along with a share of profits. It establishes a legal and economic framework for exploration, showing how the Spanish Crown incentivized expansion through private enterprise while maintaining authority over commerce, territory, and governance. Ferdinand of Aragon Privileges Granted to Columbus Read Document 08/03/1492 Columbus sailed west under the Spanish Crown seeking a route to Asia, making landfall in the Bahamas on 12 October 1492 and initiating sustained contact between Europe and the Americas. He explored Cuba and Hispaniola and founded the short-lived La Navidad. His 1492–1493 journal, the earliest detailed European account of the Caribbean, survives only through the abstracted transcription of Bartolomé de las Casas. Christopher Columbus Columbus' Diary of His First Voyage Read Document 02/15/1493 Columbus’s letter announcing the results of his first voyage was published across Europe, describing the islands he encountered, their peoples, and the vast potential for wealth and Christian expansion. Framing the discovery as a triumph for Spain, the letter promised new lands rich in resources and ripe for conversion, bolstering Spanish prestige and competition with rival European powers. Christopher Columbus Columbus' Letter of His First Voyage Read Document 05/04/1493 Issued in 1493, Pope Alexander VI grants Spain rights to lands “discovered” west of a line of longitude while recognizing prior Portuguese claims to lands east of it. Written in Latin, this bull established the principle that non-Christian lands could be claimed by European powers, forming the basis for future colonization of the Americas. Pope Alexander VI Inter caetera Read Document 06/07/1494 An agreement between Spain and Portugal, mediated by the Pope, that divided newly discovered lands outside Europe along a meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands. This treaty granted Spain rights to most of the Americas while Portugal secured control over Africa, Asia, and later Brazil, shaping the course of global empire. Pope Alexander VI Treaty of Tordesillas Read Document 03/05/1496 Venetian explorer John Cabot, sailing under commission from England’s Henry VII, made landfall on the coast of North America, likely Newfoundland, on June 24, becoming the first known European since the Norse to reach the mainland. His voyage laid the foundation for England’s territorial claims in the New World, shaping the future of English colonization. Henry VII John Cabot's First Patent Read Document 05/10/1497 Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine navigator working for Spain, claimed to have sailed on a 1497–1498 voyage along the coast of the New World, possibly reaching Central America, though the authenticity of this voyage remains disputed by historians. Amerigo Vespucci Amerigo Vespucci First Voyage Read Document 07/22/1497 The Spanish Crown issued royal instructions authorizing Christopher Columbus to promote permanent settlement on Hispaniola by distributing land and requiring colonists to cultivate crops and develop the island’s resources. This decree marked an early shift from exploration toward organized colonization and agricultural exploitation in Spain’s emerging American empire. Ferdinand of Aragon Decree to Cultivate American Colonies Read Document 03/05/1498 Second letters patent issued by Henry VII granting John Cabot authority to outfit up to six ships and return to newly discovered lands (February 3, 1498), expanding royal support for exploration while relying on private financing, after which Cabot departed later that year on a voyage whose date, route, and fate remain unknown, with his pension ending in 1499 suggesting he likely died during or shortly after the expedition. Henry VII John Cabot's Second Patent Read Document 1503 Mundus Novus is a letter, attributed to Amerigo Vespucci, describing his voyages to the newly encountered lands across the Atlantic. Written in Latin and first printed in 1503, it introduced European readers to the idea that these lands were not Asia, but a “New World” previously unknown to Europeans. The letter emphasizes the vast size, natural wealth, and distinct peoples of these territories, fueling curiosity and prompting further exploration. Amerigo Vespucci Mundus Novus Read Document 12/27/1512 Promulgated by King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Juana of Castile in Burgos, Spain; the first comprehensive legal code regulating Spanish conduct, labor obligations, living conditions, and religious instruction of Indigenous peoples in the Americas, initially on Hispaniola and later applied to Puerto Rico and Jamaica, establishing the Crown’s framework for colonial governance and the treatment of native populations. Ferdinand of Aragon The Laws of Burgos 1 2 3 ... 135 1 ... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 ... 135 Biographies Christopher Columbus Christopher Columbus (1451–1506) was a Genoese navigator who sailed under the Spanish Crown and completed four transatlantic voyages beginning in 1492. He is best known for making sustained European contact with the Americas while searching for a western sea route to Asia. His expeditions initiated the Columbian Exchange and Spanish colonization of the Caribbean, though his governance and treatment of Indigenous peoples remain deeply controversial. View Bio John Rolfe John Rolfe (c. 1585–1622) was an English colonist who became one of the most important figures in the early development of Virginia. He helped establish Virginia’s tobacco industry and married Pocahontas in 1614, contributing to a period of improved relations between the English and the Powhatan Confederacy. His legacy is closely tied to the economic growth of Jamestown, the colonization of Virginia, and the complex history of English-Indigenous relations in early America. View Bio John Winthrop John Winthrop (1588–1649) was an English Puritan leader who helped establish the Massachusetts Bay Colony and served as its governor for much of its early history. In 1630, he led a large group of Puritan settlers to New England as part of the Great Migration, seeking to establish a religious community based on Puritan principles. As governor, Winthrop shaped the colony's government and society, leaving a lasting legacy as one of the most influential leaders in early New England. View Bio Benjamin Franklin Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) rose from humble beginnings as a runaway printer’s apprentice to become a leading writer, scientist, diplomat, and statesman whose influence shaped every stage of America’s founding. Through intellect, wit, and practical wisdom, he helped secure independence, unite the colonies, and design a constitutional republic that could endure. View Bio Roger Sherman Roger Sherman (1721–1793) was a Connecticut statesman and lawyer who played a central role in America’s founding and is the only person to sign all four key founding documents: the Continental Association, the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, and the U.S. Constitution. A delegate to both Continental Congresses and the Constitutional Convention, he later served in the first U.S. House of Representatives and Senate, shaping the early structure of the federal government. View Bio Samuel Adams Samuel Adams (1722–1803) was an American revolutionary, Founding Father, and political leader who became one of the most influential organizers of resistance to British rule. He helped mobilize opposition to British taxation, supported American independence, signed the Declaration of Independence, and later served as governor of Massachusetts. He opposed the ratification of the U.S. Constitution. View Bio Reset Filter by Era Tags Filter by Office Tags 1 2 3 ... 9 1 ... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ... 9

Chester Arthur Chester Alan Arthur was the 21st president of the United States, serving from September 19, 1881, to March 4, 1885. Born into a politically active New York family, Arthur became a lawyer, Republican Party organizer, and influential figure in New York politics before unexpectedly ascending to the presidency after the assassination of President James A. Garfield. Although he entered office closely associated with the era's powerful political machines and the patronage system, Arthur surprised many observers by supporting civil service reform and signing the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act. His presidency was relatively brief and occurred during a period of political and economic stability, but his willingness to challenge some of his former political allies gave his administration a more reform-oriented character than many had expected. Arthur was born on October 5, 1829, in Fairfield, Vermont, the fifth of nine children of William Arthur and Malvina Stone Arthur. His father was a Baptist minister who moved the family frequently as he served congregations in Vermont, New York, and other communities. Arthur eventually attended Union College in Schenectady, New York, where he graduated in 1848. After teaching school for several years, he studied law and was admitted to the New York bar in 1854. During his early years in New York City, Arthur became involved in the Republican Party and developed a reputation as a polished, sociable, and politically ambitious young lawyer. Arthur's legal and political career expanded rapidly during the years leading up to the Civil War. As a lawyer, he became involved in several important cases concerning the rights of African Americans and successfully represented Elizabeth Jennings Graham, a Black schoolteacher who had been forcibly removed from a New York streetcar. During the Civil War, Arthur served in the Union Army's quartermaster department and eventually attained the rank of brigadier general through his administrative responsibilities, although he did not see combat. After the war, he became deeply involved in New York Republican politics and aligned himself with the powerful political organization led by Senator Roscoe Conkling. Arthur was appointed Collector of the Port of New York in 1871, one of the most important federal patronage positions in the country, but President Rutherford B. Hayes removed him in 1878 as part of an effort to weaken the influence of political machines in federal appointments. In 1880, Arthur was selected as James A. Garfield's running mate in an attempt to unite the Republican Party's competing factions. Garfield won the election, but his relationship with Arthur and Conkling's political organization remained strained. On July 2, 1881, Garfield was shot by Charles Guiteau, a disgruntled office seeker who believed that Garfield owed political appointments to the Stalwart faction. Garfield died from his wounds on September 19, making Arthur president. Many Americans initially feared that the new president would use the White House to strengthen the patronage system, but Arthur instead supported civil service reform. In 1883, he signed the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act, establishing competitive examinations for certain federal positions and helping establish the principle that government employment should be based increasingly on merit rather than political loyalty. Arthur also signed legislation establishing the modern U.S. Navy's steel-hulled construction program and supported a reduction in high protective tariffs, though Congress did not fully adopt his tariff proposals. After leaving office in March 1885, Arthur returned to New York City and largely withdrew from public life. His health had deteriorated during his presidency, and he was suffering from Bright's disease, a kidney disorder that was not fully understood or effectively treatable at the time. Arthur had hoped to seek the Republican nomination for another term in 1884, but his health and limited political support made a successful campaign unlikely. Instead, the Republican nomination went to James G. Blaine, who ultimately lost the election to Democrat Grover Cleveland. Arthur spent much of his remaining time at home, maintaining relationships with friends and former political associates while working on his personal papers and legal affairs. Chester Arthur died in New York City on November 18, 1886, at the age of 57, less than two years after leaving the presidency. He was buried in Albany Rural Cemetery in Menands, New York, beside his wife, Ellen Lewis Herndon Arthur, who had died in 1880 before he became president. Arthur's historical reputation has changed considerably over time. Once remembered primarily as a product of the political patronage system, he is now often regarded as an important transitional figure in the development of modern federal civil service. His support for the Pendleton Act was particularly significant because it helped begin the transformation of the federal government from a system dominated by patronage appointments toward one based more heavily on professional public service. Though his presidency was not among the most consequential in American history, Arthur's unexpected embrace of reform remains the central feature of his legacy.

< Back Mark Shubert Founder, Chair, Creative Director Mark L. Shubert is the Founder of Amending America ltd., the Chair of the Board, and Creative Director. During my freshman year at The King's College (December 2019), I started a small website which covered the Constitution and the historical context surrounding its creation, ratification, and early implementation. The more research I included the more I was compelled to add which grew the site from a small scholarly project to what it is today. In May of 2022 I took the website idea and incorporated it as a nonprofit 501(c)(3). I received notice from the government of my charity status while I was in Rome and so I added a second name to the org "Tarpeia" named after the Tarpeian Rock on the south side of the Capitoline Hill. I graduated college in May of 2023 with a Bachelors degree in Finance and minored in Economics and Politics. I studied finance and economics despite having a passion in history and politics because most political issues today could be solved with sound financial management. I am an Eagle Scout, sadly Troop 76 disbanded. I am a member of the Sons of the American Revolution. My family on my mother's paternal side came over to America in 1630 on the flagship of the Winthrop fleet called the Arabella. I have volunteered at the Humane Society, Habitat for Humanity, Red Cross, American Legion, Veteran's Affairs, and the Boy Scouts. My aims for this charity are to: compile the best online repository of primary source documents that is comprehensive, meaningful, and user-friendly in regards to navigation and reading; curate the best online curriculum covering American history and civics in a constructive, educationally-professional manner; revise and publish academic papers that enrich our shared understanding of American history which includes exploring topics and people of the past who are neglected and correcting historiographies which intentionally or unintentionally promote an incorrect or even insidious appreciation of past peoples or concepts; become an educational vender in all states and territories; be a center of a consortium of educational institutions and educators with shared values; lastly, raise the standard of every student's, every teacher's, and every scholar's understanding of American history. These are my aims; I know these are your aims as well. Let us work together to achieve our shared goals.

< Back AEI's CERN Nonprofit Think Tank There is little in the realm of public policy that can advance opportunity, family, and the American creed as powerfully as does education. Yet, it can seem today that too many are intent on using education to promote bureaucracy, division, and a war on rigor. The Conservative Education Reform Network seeks to rectify this problem by cultivating a national community of conservative leaders in education, spanning a broad array of issue areas, positions, regions, and viewpoints. Through the network, we hope to foster meaningful efforts to promote solutions for students and families in the areas of early childhood, K–12, and higher education. The network boasts more than 850 members, hailing from all 50 states and Washington, D.C., working in a variety of roles, and offering a far-flung range of expertise.

World Wars Era Chapter 17: World War I 1913 ― 1921 New Freedom 1913-1917 Over There! 1917-1921 New Nationalism 1897 ― 1913 Previous Chapter Roaring Twenties 1921 ― 1929 Next Chapter World Wars Era Sponsors In Grateful Recognition "Patrons of the Past" (Sponsoring all nine Eras) Doug Shubert Adam Shubert Cathy Gillespie Sponsor an Era Documents Filter by Type Filter by Author Reset Filter by Era Master Index Read Document 04/17/1492 The formal agreement between Christopher Columbus and the Catholic Monarchs, outlining the terms of his voyage, including titles, governance, and a share of profits from any lands discovered. It provides a primary record of how Spain officially authorized and incentivized overseas exploration, establishing Columbus’s authority and the framework for his expeditions. Ferdinand of Aragon Capitulations of Santa Fe Read Document 04/30/1492 Issued by Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, the charter grants Christopher Columbus hereditary titles of Admiral of the Ocean Sea, Viceroy, and Governor over discovered lands, along with a share of profits. It establishes a legal and economic framework for exploration, showing how the Spanish Crown incentivized expansion through private enterprise while maintaining authority over commerce, territory, and governance. Ferdinand of Aragon Privileges Granted to Columbus Read Document 08/03/1492 Columbus sailed west under the Spanish Crown seeking a route to Asia, making landfall in the Bahamas on 12 October 1492 and initiating sustained contact between Europe and the Americas. He explored Cuba and Hispaniola and founded the short-lived La Navidad. His 1492–1493 journal, the earliest detailed European account of the Caribbean, survives only through the abstracted transcription of Bartolomé de las Casas. Christopher Columbus Columbus' Diary of His First Voyage Read Document 02/15/1493 Columbus’s letter announcing the results of his first voyage was published across Europe, describing the islands he encountered, their peoples, and the vast potential for wealth and Christian expansion. Framing the discovery as a triumph for Spain, the letter promised new lands rich in resources and ripe for conversion, bolstering Spanish prestige and competition with rival European powers. Christopher Columbus Columbus' Letter of His First Voyage Read Document 05/04/1493 Issued in 1493, Pope Alexander VI grants Spain rights to lands “discovered” west of a line of longitude while recognizing prior Portuguese claims to lands east of it. Written in Latin, this bull established the principle that non-Christian lands could be claimed by European powers, forming the basis for future colonization of the Americas. Pope Alexander VI Inter caetera Read Document 06/07/1494 An agreement between Spain and Portugal, mediated by the Pope, that divided newly discovered lands outside Europe along a meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands. This treaty granted Spain rights to most of the Americas while Portugal secured control over Africa, Asia, and later Brazil, shaping the course of global empire. Pope Alexander VI Treaty of Tordesillas Read Document 03/05/1496 Venetian explorer John Cabot, sailing under commission from England’s Henry VII, made landfall on the coast of North America, likely Newfoundland, on June 24, becoming the first known European since the Norse to reach the mainland. His voyage laid the foundation for England’s territorial claims in the New World, shaping the future of English colonization. Henry VII John Cabot's First Patent Read Document 05/10/1497 Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine navigator working for Spain, claimed to have sailed on a 1497–1498 voyage along the coast of the New World, possibly reaching Central America, though the authenticity of this voyage remains disputed by historians. Amerigo Vespucci Amerigo Vespucci First Voyage Read Document 07/22/1497 The Spanish Crown issued royal instructions authorizing Christopher Columbus to promote permanent settlement on Hispaniola by distributing land and requiring colonists to cultivate crops and develop the island’s resources. This decree marked an early shift from exploration toward organized colonization and agricultural exploitation in Spain’s emerging American empire. Ferdinand of Aragon Decree to Cultivate American Colonies Read Document 03/05/1498 Second letters patent issued by Henry VII granting John Cabot authority to outfit up to six ships and return to newly discovered lands (February 3, 1498), expanding royal support for exploration while relying on private financing, after which Cabot departed later that year on a voyage whose date, route, and fate remain unknown, with his pension ending in 1499 suggesting he likely died during or shortly after the expedition. Henry VII John Cabot's Second Patent Read Document 1503 Mundus Novus is a letter, attributed to Amerigo Vespucci, describing his voyages to the newly encountered lands across the Atlantic. Written in Latin and first printed in 1503, it introduced European readers to the idea that these lands were not Asia, but a “New World” previously unknown to Europeans. The letter emphasizes the vast size, natural wealth, and distinct peoples of these territories, fueling curiosity and prompting further exploration. Amerigo Vespucci Mundus Novus Read Document 12/27/1512 Promulgated by King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Juana of Castile in Burgos, Spain; the first comprehensive legal code regulating Spanish conduct, labor obligations, living conditions, and religious instruction of Indigenous peoples in the Americas, initially on Hispaniola and later applied to Puerto Rico and Jamaica, establishing the Crown’s framework for colonial governance and the treatment of native populations. Ferdinand of Aragon The Laws of Burgos 1 2 3 ... 135 1 ... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 ... 135 Biographies Christopher Columbus Christopher Columbus (1451–1506) was a Genoese navigator who sailed under the Spanish Crown and completed four transatlantic voyages beginning in 1492. He is best known for making sustained European contact with the Americas while searching for a western sea route to Asia. His expeditions initiated the Columbian Exchange and Spanish colonization of the Caribbean, though his governance and treatment of Indigenous peoples remain deeply controversial. View Bio John Rolfe John Rolfe (c. 1585–1622) was an English colonist who became one of the most important figures in the early development of Virginia. He helped establish Virginia’s tobacco industry and married Pocahontas in 1614, contributing to a period of improved relations between the English and the Powhatan Confederacy. His legacy is closely tied to the economic growth of Jamestown, the colonization of Virginia, and the complex history of English-Indigenous relations in early America. View Bio John Winthrop John Winthrop (1588–1649) was an English Puritan leader who helped establish the Massachusetts Bay Colony and served as its governor for much of its early history. In 1630, he led a large group of Puritan settlers to New England as part of the Great Migration, seeking to establish a religious community based on Puritan principles. As governor, Winthrop shaped the colony's government and society, leaving a lasting legacy as one of the most influential leaders in early New England. View Bio Benjamin Franklin Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) rose from humble beginnings as a runaway printer’s apprentice to become a leading writer, scientist, diplomat, and statesman whose influence shaped every stage of America’s founding. Through intellect, wit, and practical wisdom, he helped secure independence, unite the colonies, and design a constitutional republic that could endure. View Bio Roger Sherman Roger Sherman (1721–1793) was a Connecticut statesman and lawyer who played a central role in America’s founding and is the only person to sign all four key founding documents: the Continental Association, the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, and the U.S. Constitution. A delegate to both Continental Congresses and the Constitutional Convention, he later served in the first U.S. House of Representatives and Senate, shaping the early structure of the federal government. View Bio Samuel Adams Samuel Adams (1722–1803) was an American revolutionary, Founding Father, and political leader who became one of the most influential organizers of resistance to British rule. He helped mobilize opposition to British taxation, supported American independence, signed the Declaration of Independence, and later served as governor of Massachusetts. He opposed the ratification of the U.S. Constitution. View Bio Reset Filter by Era Tags Filter by Office Tags 1 2 3 ... 9 1 ... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ... 9

Cold War Era Chapter 21: Containment 1945 ― 1961 The Buck Stops Here 1945-1953 New Look 1953-1961 World War II 1941 ― 1945 Previous Chapter Detente 1961 ― 1977 Next Chapter Cold War Era Sponsors In Grateful Recognition "Patrons of the Past" (Sponsoring all nine Eras) Doug Shubert Adam Shubert Cathy Gillespie Sponsor an Era Documents Filter by Type Filter by Author Reset Filter by Era Master Index Read Document 04/17/1492 The formal agreement between Christopher Columbus and the Catholic Monarchs, outlining the terms of his voyage, including titles, governance, and a share of profits from any lands discovered. It provides a primary record of how Spain officially authorized and incentivized overseas exploration, establishing Columbus’s authority and the framework for his expeditions. Ferdinand of Aragon Capitulations of Santa Fe Read Document 04/30/1492 Issued by Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, the charter grants Christopher Columbus hereditary titles of Admiral of the Ocean Sea, Viceroy, and Governor over discovered lands, along with a share of profits. It establishes a legal and economic framework for exploration, showing how the Spanish Crown incentivized expansion through private enterprise while maintaining authority over commerce, territory, and governance. Ferdinand of Aragon Privileges Granted to Columbus Read Document 08/03/1492 Columbus sailed west under the Spanish Crown seeking a route to Asia, making landfall in the Bahamas on 12 October 1492 and initiating sustained contact between Europe and the Americas. He explored Cuba and Hispaniola and founded the short-lived La Navidad. His 1492–1493 journal, the earliest detailed European account of the Caribbean, survives only through the abstracted transcription of Bartolomé de las Casas. Christopher Columbus Columbus' Diary of His First Voyage Read Document 02/15/1493 Columbus’s letter announcing the results of his first voyage was published across Europe, describing the islands he encountered, their peoples, and the vast potential for wealth and Christian expansion. Framing the discovery as a triumph for Spain, the letter promised new lands rich in resources and ripe for conversion, bolstering Spanish prestige and competition with rival European powers. Christopher Columbus Columbus' Letter of His First Voyage Read Document 05/04/1493 Issued in 1493, Pope Alexander VI grants Spain rights to lands “discovered” west of a line of longitude while recognizing prior Portuguese claims to lands east of it. Written in Latin, this bull established the principle that non-Christian lands could be claimed by European powers, forming the basis for future colonization of the Americas. Pope Alexander VI Inter caetera Read Document 06/07/1494 An agreement between Spain and Portugal, mediated by the Pope, that divided newly discovered lands outside Europe along a meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands. This treaty granted Spain rights to most of the Americas while Portugal secured control over Africa, Asia, and later Brazil, shaping the course of global empire. Pope Alexander VI Treaty of Tordesillas Read Document 03/05/1496 Venetian explorer John Cabot, sailing under commission from England’s Henry VII, made landfall on the coast of North America, likely Newfoundland, on June 24, becoming the first known European since the Norse to reach the mainland. His voyage laid the foundation for England’s territorial claims in the New World, shaping the future of English colonization. Henry VII John Cabot's First Patent Read Document 05/10/1497 Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine navigator working for Spain, claimed to have sailed on a 1497–1498 voyage along the coast of the New World, possibly reaching Central America, though the authenticity of this voyage remains disputed by historians. Amerigo Vespucci Amerigo Vespucci First Voyage Read Document 07/22/1497 The Spanish Crown issued royal instructions authorizing Christopher Columbus to promote permanent settlement on Hispaniola by distributing land and requiring colonists to cultivate crops and develop the island’s resources. This decree marked an early shift from exploration toward organized colonization and agricultural exploitation in Spain’s emerging American empire. Ferdinand of Aragon Decree to Cultivate American Colonies Read Document 03/05/1498 Second letters patent issued by Henry VII granting John Cabot authority to outfit up to six ships and return to newly discovered lands (February 3, 1498), expanding royal support for exploration while relying on private financing, after which Cabot departed later that year on a voyage whose date, route, and fate remain unknown, with his pension ending in 1499 suggesting he likely died during or shortly after the expedition. Henry VII John Cabot's Second Patent Read Document 1503 Mundus Novus is a letter, attributed to Amerigo Vespucci, describing his voyages to the newly encountered lands across the Atlantic. Written in Latin and first printed in 1503, it introduced European readers to the idea that these lands were not Asia, but a “New World” previously unknown to Europeans. The letter emphasizes the vast size, natural wealth, and distinct peoples of these territories, fueling curiosity and prompting further exploration. Amerigo Vespucci Mundus Novus Read Document 12/27/1512 Promulgated by King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Juana of Castile in Burgos, Spain; the first comprehensive legal code regulating Spanish conduct, labor obligations, living conditions, and religious instruction of Indigenous peoples in the Americas, initially on Hispaniola and later applied to Puerto Rico and Jamaica, establishing the Crown’s framework for colonial governance and the treatment of native populations. Ferdinand of Aragon The Laws of Burgos 1 2 3 ... 135 1 ... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 ... 135 Biographies Christopher Columbus Christopher Columbus (1451–1506) was a Genoese navigator who sailed under the Spanish Crown and completed four transatlantic voyages beginning in 1492. He is best known for making sustained European contact with the Americas while searching for a western sea route to Asia. His expeditions initiated the Columbian Exchange and Spanish colonization of the Caribbean, though his governance and treatment of Indigenous peoples remain deeply controversial. View Bio John Rolfe John Rolfe (c. 1585–1622) was an English colonist who became one of the most important figures in the early development of Virginia. He helped establish Virginia’s tobacco industry and married Pocahontas in 1614, contributing to a period of improved relations between the English and the Powhatan Confederacy. His legacy is closely tied to the economic growth of Jamestown, the colonization of Virginia, and the complex history of English-Indigenous relations in early America. View Bio John Winthrop John Winthrop (1588–1649) was an English Puritan leader who helped establish the Massachusetts Bay Colony and served as its governor for much of its early history. In 1630, he led a large group of Puritan settlers to New England as part of the Great Migration, seeking to establish a religious community based on Puritan principles. As governor, Winthrop shaped the colony's government and society, leaving a lasting legacy as one of the most influential leaders in early New England. View Bio Benjamin Franklin Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) rose from humble beginnings as a runaway printer’s apprentice to become a leading writer, scientist, diplomat, and statesman whose influence shaped every stage of America’s founding. Through intellect, wit, and practical wisdom, he helped secure independence, unite the colonies, and design a constitutional republic that could endure. View Bio Roger Sherman Roger Sherman (1721–1793) was a Connecticut statesman and lawyer who played a central role in America’s founding and is the only person to sign all four key founding documents: the Continental Association, the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, and the U.S. Constitution. A delegate to both Continental Congresses and the Constitutional Convention, he later served in the first U.S. House of Representatives and Senate, shaping the early structure of the federal government. View Bio Samuel Adams Samuel Adams (1722–1803) was an American revolutionary, Founding Father, and political leader who became one of the most influential organizers of resistance to British rule. He helped mobilize opposition to British taxation, supported American independence, signed the Declaration of Independence, and later served as governor of Massachusetts. He opposed the ratification of the U.S. Constitution. View Bio Reset Filter by Era Tags Filter by Office Tags 1 2 3 ... 9 1 ... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ... 9

As Chief Moderator you are tasked with setting up and running online debates, encouraging participation in debates, reviewing mock bills on the Forum page and essays on the Essays page to make sure content is following site guidelines. You will also manage interactive socials such as Discord. < Back Chief Moderator Apply Now Job Type Volunteer About the Role As Chief Moderator you are tasked with setting up and running online debates, encouraging participation in debates, reviewing mock bills on the Forum page and essays on the Essays page to make sure content is following site guidelines. You will also manage interactive socials such as Discord. Requirements Experience with moderating online platforms and debates. Letter of Recommendation from an Employer of a relevant job. About the Company Amending America is an educational support services 501(c)(3) that specializes in American History, Civics, and Constitutional Law, and provides a variety of different resources for people to learn from including online courses, research projects, videos, and an extensive library of primary source documents. Apply Now

John Quincy Adams John Quincy Adams was the sixth President of the United States, serving from March 4, 1825, to March 4, 1829. Born into one of America’s most prominent political families, he was the eldest son of John Adams, the second President, and Abigail Adams. Throughout his long career, Adams served as a diplomat, senator, secretary of state, president, and finally a member of the House of Representatives. His life spanned the American Revolution, the founding of the federal government, the War of 1812, the Era of Good Feelings, and the growing sectional conflict over slavery. Although his presidency was politically difficult and lasted only one term, his later congressional career established him as one of the most outspoken defenders of free speech and opponents of slavery in American history. Adams was born on July 11, 1767, in Braintree, Massachusetts, to John and Abigail Adams. His childhood was deeply shaped by the American Revolution, and as a boy he witnessed the Battle of Bunker Hill from nearby Penn’s Hill in 1775. His father’s political career also exposed him to international affairs at an unusually young age. At only ten years old, Adams accompanied his father to Europe and spent several years studying in France and the Netherlands. While still a teenager, he served as an interpreter and secretary to the American diplomatic mission in Russia. He returned to Massachusetts in 1785 and entered Harvard College, graduating in 1787. Adams subsequently studied law and was admitted to the Massachusetts bar in 1791, but his education and early experiences had already prepared him for a career in diplomacy and public service. Adams entered national public life as a diplomat while still in his twenties. In 1794, President George Washington appointed him minister to the Netherlands, beginning a diplomatic career that would take him to several European capitals. He later served as minister to Prussia and was elected to the United States Senate in 1803. Adams eventually broke with the Federalist Party because of his support for President Thomas Jefferson's Embargo, and he resigned from the Senate in 1808. President James Madison later appointed him minister to Russia, where he served during the Napoleonic Wars. Adams was one of the American commissioners who negotiated the Treaty of Ghent, which ended the War of 1812. In 1815, President Madison appointed him minister to Britain, and later that year Adams became Secretary of State under President James Monroe. As secretary of state, he was one of the principal architects of American foreign policy, helping formulate the Monroe Doctrine and negotiating the Adams-Onís Treaty of 1819, through which the United States acquired Florida from Spain. By the time he became president, Adams had accumulated decades of experience in diplomacy, law, and national government. Adams became president following the bitter election of 1824, one of the most controversial presidential elections in American history. Andrew Jackson won the most electoral votes but failed to receive a majority, so the election was decided by the House of Representatives. Speaker Henry Clay supported Adams, and the House elected him president on February 9, 1825. Adams proposed an ambitious program of national development that included federal support for roads, canals, scientific research, education, and other internal improvements. He also supported a national observatory and greater investment in scientific and intellectual institutions. However, his administration faced fierce opposition from Jackson and his supporters, who accused Adams and Clay of making a corrupt bargain. Adams struggled to build a political coalition, and many of his proposals were defeated or weakened by Congress. His administration's difficulties contributed to Jackson's decisive victory in the election of 1828, and Adams left office on March 4, 1829. Rather than retire from public life after his presidency, Adams returned to national politics in an unexpected way. In 1830, he was elected to the House of Representatives, becoming the only former president to serve in Congress after leaving the White House until Andrew Johnson entered the Senate in the nineteenth century. Adams represented Massachusetts in the House for the rest of his life and became one of the nation's leading opponents of slavery. He fought against the congressional "gag rule," which prevented the House from considering petitions concerning slavery, arguing that it violated the constitutional right of petition. He also represented the enslaved Africans involved in the Amistad case before the Supreme Court, successfully arguing that they had been illegally enslaved and should be free. Adams increasingly viewed the expansion of slavery as a threat to the principles of the American Revolution and became an important early congressional voice against the institution. Adams's public career ended dramatically on February 21, 1848, when he suffered a cerebral hemorrhage and collapsed at his desk in the House chamber. He died two days later, on February 23, 1848, in the Capitol at the age of eighty. His final words are traditionally reported to have been spoken to his wife, Abigail, although the exact wording of his last statement is uncertain. Adams was buried in the United First Parish Church in Quincy, Massachusetts, alongside his parents. His presidency was overshadowed during his lifetime by the political triumph of Andrew Jackson, but his broader career has received much greater recognition. He was an exceptionally accomplished diplomat, an influential secretary of state, and a determined defender of constitutional liberties. His nearly eighteen years in Congress, particularly his battle against the congressional gag rule and his opposition to slavery, became one of the most important chapters of his public life and cemented his reputation as one of the most intellectually formidable statesmen of the early United States.

James A. Garfield James Abram Garfield was the 20th president of the United States, serving from March 4, 1881, until his death on September 19, 1881. Born into humble circumstances in Ohio, Garfield rose through education, teaching, law, military service, and politics to become one of the most prominent Republican leaders of the post–Civil War era. His presidency was extraordinarily brief, but his career reflected many of the central political conflicts of the Gilded Age, particularly disputes over civil-service reform, political patronage, and the influence of party factions. Garfield was also a gifted scholar and orator who believed strongly in education, individual advancement, and public service. His assassination, only months after taking office, transformed him from a relatively obscure president into a symbol of the dangers of the nation's patronage system. Garfield was born on November 19, 1831, in Orange Township, Ohio, the youngest of five children of Abram and Eliza Garfield. His father died when James was only 18 months old, leaving his mother to raise the family with limited means. As a boy, Garfield worked on his family's farm and developed a fascination with reading and learning. At age 16 he left home to attend the Geauga Seminary, where he studied while working to pay his expenses. He later attended the Western Reserve Eclectic Institute—now Hiram College—and became an instructor there. In 1854 he entered Williams College in Massachusetts as a junior and graduated in 1856. Garfield returned to Ohio and became principal of the Eclectic Institute, where he taught a broad range of subjects. His intellectual abilities, religious convictions, and talent for public speaking quickly established him as a rising figure in his community. Garfield entered politics as a Republican during the turbulent years preceding the Civil War. In 1859, Ohio voters elected him to the state senate, where he opposed the expansion of slavery and became increasingly involved in the Republican Party. When the Civil War began in 1861, Garfield volunteered for military service and eventually became a brigadier general. He distinguished himself at the Battle of Middle Creek in Kentucky in January 1862, helping Union forces secure an important victory. Later that year he was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives, beginning a congressional career that would last nearly 18 years. Garfield resigned his military commission in 1863 and took his seat in Congress, where he became an influential Republican. He served on important committees, supported Reconstruction and civil rights for African Americans, and developed a reputation as an able legislator and powerful speaker. By the late 1870s, he was one of the most respected Republican leaders in Washington. Garfield's path to the presidency emerged from a bitterly divided Republican Party. At the 1880 Republican National Convention, former president Ulysses S. Grant was supported by the Stalwarts, who favored traditional patronage politics, while Senator James G. Blaine represented another major faction. Garfield was nominated as a compromise candidate after a prolonged convention and was elected president in November 1880. His administration immediately became entangled in the patronage struggle. Garfield attempted to resist the demands of Senator Roscoe Conkling and the Stalwarts, particularly over appointments to federal offices. His decision to nominate reform-minded figures, including William H. Robertson as collector of the Port of New York, provoked a major confrontation with Conkling. Although Garfield's administration had little time to accomplish its broader program, he supported civil-service reform, education, improved agricultural research, and modernization of the federal government. On July 2, 1881, Charles J. Guiteau, a disgruntled office seeker who believed Garfield owed him a government position, shot the president at a Washington railroad station. After the shooting, Garfield spent the summer of 1881 attempting to recover while doctors struggled to locate and remove the bullet. He was moved from the White House to a seaside retreat in New Jersey in September, but his condition continued to deteriorate. Garfield remained mentally alert for much of his illness and continued to discuss government affairs with those around him. Although later medical understanding suggests that the medical treatment itself contributed substantially to his decline, physicians at the time repeatedly probed his wound in unsuccessful attempts to find the bullet. Garfield eventually developed severe infections and internal complications. His vice president, Chester A. Arthur, did not assume presidential powers during Garfield's illness, and Garfield technically remained president until his death. Garfield died at Elberon, New Jersey, on September 19, 1881, at the age of 49. Guiteau was convicted of murder and hanged in 1882. Garfield's presidency was too short for him to establish a substantial record as chief executive, but his death had lasting consequences for American politics. His assassination dramatically increased public support for civil-service reform and helped create the political momentum that produced the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act of 1883, which began replacing the patronage system with a merit-based federal civil service. Garfield is also remembered for rising from poverty through education and becoming one of the nation's most accomplished scholars and politicians. His life demonstrated the possibilities of nineteenth-century American education and political advancement, while his death exposed the destructive consequences of the era's patronage politics. Although ranked among the lesser-known presidents because of the brevity of his administration, Garfield occupies an important place in American history as a reform-minded president whose unfinished career helped accelerate the transformation of the federal government.